- a. BACKGROUND
- (a) Overview
- (b) Early Settlements
- (c) Legendary Malay Kingdoms
- (d) Melaka Sultanate
- (e) Religious Influences
- (b) Early Settlements
- b. COLONIAL ERA
- (a) European Arrival
- (b) British Malaya
- (c) British North Borneo
- (b) British Malaya
- c. Pre-independence
- (a) Japanese Occupation
- (b) Freedom Struggle
- d. Malayan Independence
- (a) Malayan Union
- (b) Formation of Malaysia
- (a) Overview
a. BACKGROUND
(a) Overview
Click to listen the narration Video Clip
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The abundance of life on the land, in the rivers and in the surrounding seas made settlement and sustenance easy for small, self-supporting human communities. Historical evidence of these early settlements is found at Kota Tampan near Lenggong in Perak; and in the Niah Caves of Sarawak.
 An early twentieth century map by an English cartographer. |
Following them were the Deutero-Malays who brought along more advanced farming techniques and new knowledge of metals. In time, the Malay peoples spread out into the islands of the archipelago, settling down into small self-contained communities which eventually gave rise to the complex and variegated ethnic pattern of Malaysia and Indonesia today.
Around the first century B.C, a new phase began in the historical development of the inhabitants of Malaysia, with the establishment of regular trading contacts with India and China. Over a period of a thousand years, these influences gradually made themselves felt, and have left their marks in the native language, literature and social custom.
Malaysia appeared for the first time on the world map as the "Golden Chersonese" or the Golden Peninsula. This map was drawn in 150 A.D. by the Greek cartographer, Claudius Ptolomey of Alexandria. At that time, there were already prosperous kingdoms in Peninsular Malaysia, such as Langkasuka and Ganga Negara.
Around the thirteenth century, Indian and Arab traders came to the region, bringing with them the religion of Islam. After 1400, Islam became a major influence with the conversion of the Malay-Hindu rulers of Melaka. From there, Islam spread to other parts of the Malay Peninsula and to the Malay states in Sumatra and along the trade routes throughout the Indonesian archipelago. The realm of the Melaka Sultans dominated both sides of the Melaka Straits for a hundred years, and marked the classical age of Malay culture.
In the early sixteenth century, Europeans sailed into the warm waters of Southeast Asia in search of spices and other riches. In 1511, Melaka fell to the might of the Portuguese seafarers, led by Alfonso de Albuquerque in his famous ship, Flor de la Mare. The Portuguese occupied Melaka for 130 years, until they were ousted by the Dutch in 1641, who in turn ceded it to the British in 1824.
Both Portuguese and Dutch power was confined to Melaka only. The British, however, pursued a policy of intervention. From their new bases in Pulau Pinang, obtained in 1786, Singapore in 1819, and Melaka - which were collectively known as the Straits Settlements - their influence and power permeated into the Malay Peninsula. About the same time, British adventurers in northern Borneo, that later became Sabah and Sarawak, acquired territories at the expense of the Brunei Sultanate. By 1914, the political organisation of the present-day states of Malaysia was as follows:-
- The Straits Settlements: British crown colony headed by a British governor. It comprised Singapore, Melaka, Pulau Pinang, the Cocos Isles and Christmas Isle, with Singapore as capital.
- The Federated Malay States: British protectorate headed by a British High Commissioner-cum-Governor of Straits Settlements. The FMS were Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak and Selangor, with the capital in Kuala Lumpur.
- The Unfederated Malay States: British protectorate under the tutelage of a British Adviser in each state, who was responsible to the British High Commissioner. These comprised Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu.
- Sarawak: British protectorate ruled by the Brooke family, descendants of James Brooke, the White Rajah of Sarawak. The capital was Kuching.
- Sabah: British protectorate ruled by the Chartered Company of British North Borneo, with its capital in Jesselton, now known as Kota Kinabalu.
The Japanese invasion of Malaya and British Borneo in late 1941 shattered British and other Western colonial supremacy, and unleashed the forces of incipient nationalism. In 1945, Japan lost the Second World War and relinquished all its territorial gains in Asia. But when the British returned to resume authority in Malaya, they were faced with an entirely new political situation that forced them to adopt new policies.
In 1946, the post-war British Military Administration (BMA) proposed the formation of the Malayan Union. This they quickly abandoned due to strong domestic opposition, and instead formed the Federation of Malaya in 1948. The Federation consisted of all the nine Malay states of the Peninsula, along with Melaka and Pulau Pinang -- united under a federal government in Kuala Lumpur headed by a British High Commissioner whose appointment required the approval of the Malay Sultans. Singapore, however, was to remain a British colony for the time being, considering its racial structure as well as the island’s economic and strategic importance.
At about this time, the Malayan Communist Party (MCP), sensing that there were elements dissatisfied with the new Federation, went on a rampage of killing and looting, with the ultimate objective of destabilising the BMA and ‘liberating’ Malaya. Dealing firmly with the revolt, the BMA declared a national State of Emergency in June 1948 and banned the MCP and its associated organisations.
The post-war years also saw the emergence of mainstream political parties striving to obtain the independence of Malaya. The United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) was formed in 1946, followed by the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) in the same year, and the Malayan Chinese Association in 1949. In 1953, the three parties formed a coalition called the Alliance. With the objective of establishing an independent and sovereign state within the British Commonwealth of Nations, the Alliance urged for democratic elections in Malaya.
In 1955, the first federal elections were held; and on 31 August 1957, the Federation of Malaya was declared a fully independent nation. Malaysia was formed on 16 September 1963, bringing into its fold Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. However, the union was short-lived, for in 1965, Singapore opted for independence.
Today, Malaysia has found its place among the nations of the world. Her voice is heard often in many issues, ranging from environmental dangers to a staunch anti-nuclear stance, and from world peace to global financial stability.
(b) Early Settlements
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In 1987, Dr Zuraina led a team to the site to confirm the validity of its Palaeolithic history. Her findings indicate that Kota Tampan was probably a workshop for making stone tools located on the shores of a former lake which could have been formed by a landslide that dammed the river bed. The team dug up stone tools from gravel beds underlying volcanic ash deposits, which scientifically matched that from the eruption at Lake Toba in Sumatra, 320 kilometres away. Similar ash, dating about 34,000 years, was found in Ampang, Selangor; as well as in Bentong and Raub in Pahang. Their reports state that these ash deposits are up to nine metres thick in the Lenggong area near Kota Tampan.
The discovery has led many scholars to postulate that the settlement at Kota Tampan was evacuated because of the ash cover from the Toba volcanic eruption. The many unfinished stone tools which were found indicate that the site was probably abandoned in a hurry. Dr Zuraina’s findings affirms that Kota Tampan is not only the oldest site of human habitation in Peninsular Malaysia, but also reveals the earliest recorded event of palaeoenvironmental on a pre-historic site.
In Sarawak, the Niah Caves attained instant fame following the discovery of the oldest human remains in Southeast Asia, dating back to some 40,000 years ago. Archaeologists also found fragments of pottery, stone tools, ornaments and a splendid set of wall paintings of red haematite depicting activities of stick-like men with hunting weapons and boats. The work of the unknown artist, estimated to be about 1000 years old, beckons travellers from around the world.
In Baturong, southeastern Sabah, excavations revealed the existence of a human settlement dating about 30,000 years ago on the shoreline of the extinct Tinkayu Lake. When the lake dried up about 15,000 years ago, people moved from the open Tenkayu sites into the rock shelter of Hagop Bilo.
Historians and anthropologists generally agree that the oldest inhabitants of Malaysia are the Orang Asli of Peninsular Malaysia, the Penans of Sarawak and the Rungus of Sabah, whose presence in the country dates back to over 5,000 years. They were probably the pioneers of the movement of peoples southwards from China and Tibet through mainland Southeast Asia and the Malay Peninsula to the Indonesian Archipelago and beyond.
From among the Orang Asli, the Negritos are the oldest inhabitants of Malaysia. They are also known by other names such as Semang and Pangan. With their small-sized bodies and curly hair, they resemble the Aetas of the Philippines and the Aborigines of Australia. Another tribe of the Orang Asli is the Senoi or the Sakai. With their dark skins and flat noses, they look like the natives of Sri Lanka, Sulawesi and Australia. Both the Negritos and the Senoi speak Austroasiatic languages.
The ancestors of the Malays, who arrived about 1000 B.C. from China and Mongolia, settled along the coastal areas. Today, their descendants can be found throughout the region all the way to Easter Island and Madagascar. They were basically farmers with knowledge of metals, and lived in wooden houses in small self-contained communities. They believed that Nature was controlled by spirits, and their central belief was focussed upon padi, the staple food crop.
(c) Legendary Malay Kingdoms
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Malaysia has built international relationships since more than 2000 years ago. During the 8th -14th centuries, new coastal settlements were established in Johor, Perak, Pahang, Kelantan and Terengganu. During this early kingdom period, trade and diplomatic ties were established with China, India and other kingdoms in Southeast Asia. These port-kingdoms despatched envoys laden with gifts to the Indian and Chinese royal courts. The local customs and beliefs were strongly influenced first by Hinduism, and then Buddhism.
 The early Indianised Malay kingdoms had strong links with other Southeast Asian royal houses. |
According to Malay folklore, the kingdom of Langkasuka was founded by Prince Merong Mahawangsa in 100 A.D. Chinese travellers referred to it as Lang-Ya-Hsin, and they wrote that it took 30 days to journey from its eastern to western borders, and 20 days from north to south. The kingdom adopted Hindu customs and religion, and attained its height of glory under King Bhagadatta who owned many elephants and had a strong force of personal bodyguards. The city was surrounded by a wall with two main gates. The priests, soldiers and craftsmen dwelled within the city walls around the king"s palace. The men wore sleeveless cotton tunics, golden earrings and other ornaments and sported long flowing hair.
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On the coast of Perak, in a mangrove-forested estuary, lies Kuala Selinsing. The location of several archaeological sites, it is believed to have been the settlement of a late prehistoric seafaring community. Basing upon evidence from human burials and artefacts, including pottery, beads, shells and glassware, it is deduced that the mangrove settlements flourished between the 3rd century B.C till about the 11th century AD.
Not far from Kuala Selinsing lies Gangga Nagara, an ancient Indianised kingdom mentioned in the Malay Annals or Sejarah Melayu. According to these records, Gangga Nagara fell after a great battle against the military might of King Rajendra I of the Chola kingdom in southern India in the 11th century AD. Historians generally agree that the last capital of Gangga Nagara was situated in Beruas, which became an early Muslim settlement.
The Kinta Valley lies in the vicinity of Gangga Nagara and Beruas. On account of the Buddhist bronzes which have been found there, it has been suggested that it could be the location of the earlier site of the lost kingdom of Gangga Nagara.
Chi tu, or the ‘Red Earth Land’, was said to be an inland kingdom. Although its location has not been confirmed, academics are of the opinion that it was a river entrepot situated in the interior of Kelantan, a state on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia bordering Thailand. A detailed description of Chi tu is provided by envoys from the Sui Dynasty of China. Their report appears in the Chi Tu Guo Ji, a documentary account of a visit to the kingdom between 607 to 610 A.D. They described Chi tu as part of the Funan Empire and that it was located in the South China Sea,100 days journey from China. According to the report, the name of the kingdom is derived from the colour of its soil which was mostly red.
The Bujang Valley in South Kedah is Malaysia’s richest archaeological region. It extends from Mount Jerai in the north to the Muda River in the south and the Straits of Melaka in the west. Apart from the Muda, the other principal river is the Merbok, while the 1,217-metre Mount Jerai is the highest landmark in the area. Situated in the rice-bowl region of Kedah, the valley was home to a prosperous kingdom around the 4th century A.D. The discovery of prehistoric sites at Guar Kepah provides evidence that the kingdom evolved from local settlements. Archaeologists have unearthed evidence which proves the existence of an ancient polity from the early centuries of the Christian era. Presumably, it emerged from under a leader who established a landfall port for traders from India and China. Buddhist inscriptions found in the valley are proof of Indian contacts from the 5th to 6th century CE. The many Buddhist and Hindu temples found in the area indicate that the people were adherents of the two Indian-based religions. Most of the settlements were located on ridges and natural levees along the rivers and on the foothill slopes, while the main temples were built on elevated land.
With the increase of trade in the Straits of Melaka, the Bujang Valley developed into a collecting centre for the products of the Malay Peninsula, and by the 7th century it had evolved into an entrepot. In 638 A.D., the ruler despatched his envoy to the Chinese royal court, and soon after the Chinese traveller I Tsing visited the kingdom. He reported that it was a trading haven for merchants from India, China, Persia and Arabia. It was probably the kingdom of Qie zha mentioned by Yiqing, a 7th century Buddhist pilgrim from China, and the same as that known to the Tamils as Kadaran, Kidaran or Klagam; or Kataha in Sanskrit.
In 670 A.D, the Bujang Valley kingdom fell under the influence of Srivijaya, but regained its power with the weakening of the Srivijaya Empire at the end of the 11th century. It was still in existence in the 14th century but declined with the coming of Islam and the rise of Melaka as an entrepot.
Tioman island is the largest island off the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Considering that it features on early Arab and Chinese maps, it must have been known to ancient mariners plying the trade routes of the South China Sea at least a millennium ago. The ceramics discovered on the island, some dating from the 10th century Song Dynasty, are evidence that it was a port of call for ships engaged in the lucrative maritime trade between South China, Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, and ultimately Europe.
Santubong is the richest protohistoric archaeological region in Sarawak. Some of the evidence found indicate the existence of an ancient seaport and iron-smelting centre. Among other findings are the remains of a Buddhist stupa and associated artefacts, Chinese trade ceramics from the Song and Tang dynasties and mysterious rock carvings.
The extensive seafaring activities of the Southeast Asian peoples gave birth to new maritime kingdoms on both sides of the Straits of Melaka and other coastal areas in the region. Malayu in Sumatra was located near modern Jambi. The important and influential Srivijaya, the precursor of Melaka, was situated on the coast of Sumatra with a probable offshoot in the northeastern part of the Malay Peninsula. Eventually, Srivijaya attained dominance over the entire Straits and controlled the port kingdoms in the Malay Peninsula and much of Sumatra. Particularly interested in the ports and kingdoms which had long-established administrative systems, religious practices and trade patterns, Srivijaya exerted its authority over Langkasuka, Chi tu, Malayu (Jambi), Qie zha (Kedah), Pan-pan, Ligor and Takuapa.
Towards the close of the 7th century, Srivijayan ships transported traders, travellers and monks to India and China, calling at the ports of Malayu, Kedah, Takuapa and Tioman. As her power and influence grew, Srivijaya attempted to monopolise trading activities in the region exacting heavy duties, tolls and tributes on the port-kingdoms under its sovereignty. The move triggered many revolts and uprisings in her far-flung territories and subsequently led to her decline in the 11th century.
The downfall of Srivijaya became complete with the emergence of the Javanese kingdom of Majapahit at the end of the 13th century. It is reported that an arrogant Majapahit ruler insulted some envoys of Kublai Khan who had come to collect tribute. The furious Khan sent an expedition which ended up killing the king. Ironically, the Chinese attack made Majapahit stronger as the people became adept with the firearms used by the Chinese force in its campaign against the kingdom. Subsequently, these ‘modern’ weapons were used by Majapahit to subdue other powers in the region.
The Majapahit Empire expanded under the able rule of Queen Suhita. She adopted a highly organised, centralised and efficient system of public administration, transforming the capital city into a fine and prosperous city. At the same time, her efficient army and navy expanded the Majapahit Empire at the expense of Srivijaya, adding on new territories such as Annam, Siam and Cambodia. Majapahit became a highly organised trading empire, trading mainly with India, China and its own colonies. In the first quarter of the 15th century, Majapahit was attacked by a Chinese fleet. The ensuing battles caused a famine which led to its decline. Majapahit continued as an independent state for another 50 years, before it fell under the control of the Melaka Sultanate in the mid 15th century.
(d) Melaka Sultanate
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In 1414, Parameswara embraced Islam, changed his name to Megat Iskandar Shah, and married a Muslim princess from Pasai, Sumatra. The move attracted Muslim traders to the port, bringing it instant international fame. Maintaining good relations with Ming China, he sent mission after mission to Peking in 1415, 1416 and 1418. Upon his death in 1424, Megat Iskandar Shah was succeeded by his son Sri Maharaja (1424-1444) whose first mission was to visit Emperor Yung Lo of Ming China to inform of his father’s death, and also to pay his respects as the new ruler of Melaka.
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From 1456 till 1498, the Melaka Sultans benefited from the services of Tun Perak, a brilliant Chief Minister or Bendahara. Tun Perak served under four Sultans, namely Sultan Muzaffar Shah, Sultan Mansor Shah; Sultan Alaudin Ri’ayat Shah, and Sultan Mahmud Shah, who suffered defeat at the hands of the Portuguese in 1511.
At its peak, Melaka became the most important port in the East, between the Mediterranean Sea and China. Over 80 languages were spoken there, and at times there were more than 4,000 traders housed in special quarters. There was the Indian quarter, the Chinese quarter, the Javanese quarter, and others. They were treated well and warehouses were made available to store their goods. The Syahbandar or the Port Authority took care of their needs, while the Melaka fleet, comprising 40 to 100 ships, guaranteed the safety of the merchants and their goods.
At one point in time, there were 4 Syahbandars to cater to the needs of merchants of different races -- one for the Gujeratis; one for the Bengalis, Tamils and other Indians; one for local merchants; and one for the Chinese and Indochinese.
Merchants from Pegu in Burma also frequented the port of Melaka. Annually, 40 to 50 ships sailed into Melaka laden with precious stones, silver and foodstuffs. The merchants would stay in Melaka for about a month to trade, sell their ships, and then return home with pottery and other items brought to Melaka by traders from India and Arabia.
Siamese merchants, too, had good trade ties with Melaka. About 30 junks carrying rice, dried fish, wine, rubies, and slaves would call upon Melaka annually. Junks from Luzon in the Philippines would bring gold, forest products and food to Melaka. Their lot was much improved when a countryman was appointed by the Sultan to serve as Temenggong, or Police Chief.
The source of food for Melaka was in Indonesia, which also had an abundant supply of spices to offer the international market at that time. Ships from Melaka regularly sailed to Demak, Grisek and Japara in Eastern Java to transport these necessary items home for use and re-sale.
The entire trading activities of Melaka was controlled by the Sultan and his courtiers. They bought and sold goods, provided capital to their agents, bought and built ships, administered the port, and levied taxes. Sultan Muzaffar Shah was directly involved in ship-building activities, while another aristocrat, Bendahara Tun Mutahir became one of the richest man in Melaka via his prominent role in the market.
The Straits of Melaka provided excellent shelter from the prevailing storms raging in the open ocean. In those days, prior to silting problems, the port could handle ocean-going vessels from all over the world. The Melaka Sultanate enjoyed a good relationship with the Ming Emperors of China, namely Emperor Yung Lo. The Chinese provided Melaka protection from the Siamese and other enemies. In this way, the area was safe and full of promise and prosperity.
The city and the port was governed by laws. At sea, the ships were considered nations complete with its own administration. The captain was as the Sultan, the navigator as Bendahara or Chief Minister, the discipline officer as Temenggong or police chief, and the crew as the people. The crew must perform their duties well, otherwise they would be fined by the captain.
The Melaka Laws were known as Risalah Hukum Kanun in Arabic. They were formulated in the mid-15th century for Sultan Muzaffar Shah. However, they were only said to be put in writing in the early 18th century in the Riau Islands by Sultan Sulaiman Shah. The Melaka laws were a combination of the Islamic Syariah and traditional Malay customs. They accorded special status and privileges to the ruling class, whereby only the ruler could wear yellow clothes and carry specially-made daggers with gold infused into the blade and handle. Rebels faced capital punishment, and petty criminals from among the people were harshly punished.
The government structure of the Melaka Sultanate was like a pyramid with the Sultan at the apex as the all- powerful Head of State. Under him, there was a council of 4 Ministers, namely the Bendahara, who controlled the military, defence, and royal customs and traditions. The Temenggong, as Chief of Police, controlled internal affairs relating to peace and order. The third key post was held by the Penghulu Bendahari who was the Sultan’s Treasurer cum Secretary. The Laksamana was the Admiral who controlled the fleet.
Under the four Ministers, there were 8 senior directors, all bearing the title Sri. Under them were 16 junior directors with the title Raja. At the bottom of the hierarchy were 32 government officers whose job was to aid the Ministers in carrying out their duties. Some of them were district or regional chiefs.
This administrative system was implemented by all the states in the Malay Peninsula, which at that time were united under the Melaka Sultanate. This system came to be known as the traditional political system of the Malay states.
Following the Portuguese invasion of 1511, Sultan Mahmud Shah fled to Kota Tinggi in Johor, where he tried to establish a new capital. Initially, his vassals from amongst the Malay rulers accepted the Johor Empire as the replacement to Melaka, but that gradually declined and the empire was fragmented.
(e) Religious Influences
Click to listen the narration Video Clip
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From the 1st century A.D., Hinduism played a vital role in the mundane and ecclesiastical affairs of the coastal kingdoms, namely Langkasuka, Ganga Negara, and to some extent Melaka. The Hindu-Malay rulers observed the same doctrines as preached in the Indian heartland. They adopted Trimurthi, the Hindu version of the Holy Trinity, comprising Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva; and the Caste system that divides people into 4 main classes, namely the Brahmin priests,
 A statue of the Buddha found in Pangkalan, Ipoh, Perak. |
Following the spread of Buddhism in India and the activities of its travelling monks, the scenario in Malaya changed accordingly. Many rulers adopted the new faith, and the masses followed suit. For a thousand years, these two religions had a popular following at all levels of society. Hindu temples and Buddhist pagodas flourished across the land. Their influences have left permanent marks on the local language and customs.
Chinese sailors and traders too have frequented Malaya shores since time immemorial. They subscribed to ancient Chinese philosophy taught by Confucius, Mencius and Lao Tze. Confucius and Mencius preached ethical norms and mores, whereas Lao Tze emphasised on spiritual values. The teachings of Confucius became state ideology for the emperors of China, and in time were inextricably fused with Buddhist thoughts and philosophy. Siddharta Gautama and Kuan Yin, the Goddess of Mercy became objects of worship.
In the 13th century, Arab and Indian Gujerati traders brought Islam to the region. Among the Hindu-Malay aristocracy of the time, the first ruler to officially accept Islam was Parameswara, the Raja of Melaka, who upon conversion changed his name to Megat Iskandar Shah. From Melaka, Islam spread to other parts of the Malay Peninsular and to the Malay states in Sumatra and along the trade routes throughout the Indonesian archipelago.
The simplicity of Islamic basic doctrines attracted the peoples of the region. It became synonymous with the Malays. Today, all ceremonies, whether official or unofficial, begin and end with supplications to Allah Almighty. The Imams and other religious officials are highly respected and play a vital role in ceremonies inside and outside the royal palaces. Islamic laws are being slowly assimilated into the country’s legal system, and the picturesque domes of mosques are common features in the scenery.
During the fasting month of Ramadhan, Muslim restaurants and eateries are closed during the daytime. The collection and distribution of tithes among Muslims is handled by a professional organization. Malaysia has one of the best-organised organisations in the world, namely the Pilgrims Management and Fund Board, or Tabung Haji, to cater for the affairs of Malaysian pilgrims in the Holy Land of Mecca and Madinah in Saudi Arabia.
In 1511, Melaka fell to the Portuguese. Through intermarriage, their Roman Catholic religion took root among the people of Melaka. The most famous Catholic missionary to visit Melaka was the Franciscan monk, St. Francis Xavier. The Portuguese, and later the Dutch, who were also Catholics, built many churches in Melaka, the most prominent being St. Paul’s Cathedral.
On Penang island, which the English had occupied since 1786, they preached the various denominations of the Protestant faith, namely Anglican, Methodist and Lutheran. The Christian community in Malaya contributed significantly in the field of education. They opened many religious and secular schools throughout the country, educating Christians and non-Christians alike.
Sikhism has also a sizeable following in the Punjabi community in Malaya. Holding fast to the teachings of their holy book, the Sahib Adi Granth, they have progressed along with the rest of the Malayans and stayed abreast in the rapid development of the country.
Standing on the threshold of the 21st century, Malaysia today is home to Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Confucians, Christians, Sikhs and followers of other faiths and creeds. Together, they live in harmony and eagerly visit each other’s homes during the respective festive seasons.
(THE TERENGGANU STONE: The Terengganu stone is the oldest evidence of Malay writing in Malaysia. Written in Arabic script, or Jawi, it is estimated to be dated 1326 or 1386. The writing on the stone pertains to Islamic criminal law.)
b. COLONIAL ERA
(a) European Arrival
 Portuguese Admiral Alfonso d" Albuquerque , the conqueror of Melaka in 1511. |
The first of the European maritime powers to venture into Southeast Asia were the Portuguese from their base in Cochin, India. Basically, they were interested in three things: to obtain spices and expensive items from the East; to wrestle sea trade routes from the Muslims; and to spread the Roman Catholic faith in Asia. In 1509, Captain Lopez de Sequeira visited Melaka, bringing credentials and presents from King Manoel. He sought permission from Sultan Mahmud Shah to land and engage in trade. Despite the initial warm welcome accorded the Portuguese, some of the established Gujerati merchants persuaded the Bendahara of Melaka to seize the Portuguese ships. In the ensuing raid, 19 of de Sequeira’s crew were taken prisoner, while he himself managed to escape with two ships. Two years later, in 1511, Admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque came with an expedition of 18 ships and more than 1,000 men. He demanded the release of the Portuguese prisoners and compensation for the loss of Portuguese life and property. As the talks dragged and broke down, Albuquerque launched several attacks on Melaka and overran it after little more than a month.
After securing the city, Albuquerque ordered the building of a stone and mortar fortress with a high tower near the seashore, which came to be known as A Famosa. With its own water supply from two wells, the fort could also be reinforced from the sea in times of danger. This was followed by the construction of elaborate fortifications equipped with gun bastions, and doorways which led to the Melaka river and also into the hinterland. Within the walls and the ramparts, a late medieval European town of stone building began to take shape. These included the governor’s residence, the town hall, civic buildings, two hospitals and no less than five churches. There were also dwellings and gardens for the Portuguese community of soldiers, administrators and merchants.
During their 130-year rule in Melaka, the Portuguese faced repeated attacks from the Malay sultanates of Johor and Acheh. Nevertheless, they held on tenaciously to Melaka until the arrival of another European maritime power - the Dutch.
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 Portugese sea captain Diego Lopez de" Sequira, who caused the spark that led to the collapse of the Melaka Sultanate. |
In August 1640, a combined Dutch-Johor force of about 4,000 men laid a siege on Melaka. Inside the walls of the city-port, people died of starvation; while outside, many succumbed to the scourge of dysentery, cholera and malaria. Six months into the siege, Melaka fell under Dutch control.
Working swiftly, the Dutch restored the fortifications, replaced Portuguese crests with Dutch ones, and made the Dutch Reformed Church the official religion. They erected new buildings including a new town hall known as the Stadthuys. However, throughout their rule, Melaka was mainly a fortress watching over Dutch trading interests in the Straits. Compared to Batavia, which remained the main entrepot and headquarters of the Dutch East Indies, Melaka was an outpost albeit an important one that could secure for the Dutch as much as possible of the Southeast Asian trade, not only between the region and Europe, but also in the carrying-trade between Asian ports.
The Johor forces which helped the Dutch to conquer Melaka were from the Johor Empire, founded by Sultan Mahmud Shah following the fall of the Melaka Sultanate in 1511. It reached its zenith during the reign of Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah II (1623-1677), inheriting most of the former domains of the Melaka Sultanate, comprising almost the entire Malay Peninsula and parts of western Sumatra.
The rulers of Johor did not regard the Dutch as friends, but merely allies in a common cause against the Portuguese. Besides the Dutch, another powerful enemy was Acheh in North Sumatra. Acheh was rich in black pepper, and the Achenese aspired to control the sea trade routes in the region. They attacked Melaka many times, both during Portuguese and Dutch rule. In 1564, they invaded Johor, and again in 1613, this time ransacking the capital at Batu Sawar. On both occasions, they took the Sultan back to Acheh as captive. The most fearsome of the Acheh rulers was Sultan Mahkota Alam (1601-1636).
The kingdom of Jambi in southern Sumatra was another enemy of the Johor rulers. In 1673, they plundered Batu Sawar and took 2500 captives and 4 tons of gold. To escape the wrath of its aggresive enemies, the capital of the Johor Empire was repeatedly moved along the Johor River: from Sayong Pinang to Johor Lama to Batu Sawar and to Kota Tinggi. Sultan Ibrahim (1677-1685) had his capital city in the Riau islands south of Singapore.
On top of its external worries, the Johor Empire was also burdened by domestic woes. When Sultan Mahmud II (1685-1699) died without leaving a successor, the throne was usurped by his Chief Minister, Bendahara Abdul Jalil, who changed his title to Sultan Abdul Jalil Riayat Shah III. Thereafter, his heirs held the throne until 1885.
The citizenry were displeased with the Bendahara’s action, and this led to chaos within the empire. Two new factions, namely the Bugis of Sulawesi and the Minangkabau of West Sumatera, took advantage of the situation. Claiming that he was the son of Mahmud II, a Minangkabau prince from Siak called Raja Kecil enlisted the help of Bugis seafarers to overthrow the Bendahara. He promised their leader, Daeng Parani, the post of Yam Tuan Muda, the second-most important in the Empire. However, in 1717, Raja Kechil attacked Riau without the Bugis, and installed himself as Sultan.
When the Bendahara’s family approached Daeng Parani for help to oust Raja Kecil, he gladly joined them. In 1722, Daeng Parani toppled Raja Kecil, and declared Sultan Sulaiman from the Bendahara house as the new ruler. In return, the Sultan appointed Parani’s brother, Daeng Merewah, as Yam Tuan Muda, who in effect became the actual ruler of the Empire, with the Sultan reduced to being a puppet on the throne. For 75 years, the Bugis dominated state affairs and held sway over the Johor court.
Sultan Sulaiman ruled from 1722 until 1760. In 1755, he enlisted Dutch help to dislodge the Bugis yoke, with the promise of better trading facilities in Johor. The Dutch were successful for a period, until the appearance of the legendary Bugis warrior, Raja Haji. He became Yam Tuan Muda from 1777 till 1784, and revived Bugis power in the empire. However, after his death, the Dutch routed the Bugis from the Riau Islands, and took complete control of the area.
It was amidst this chaotic scenario the British arrived in the mid 18th century under the auspices of the English East India Company (EIC), which was established in England in 1600. Between 1763 and 1784, the EIC had tried hard to obtain a trading post in the region. They were given the island of Balambangan by the Sultan of Sulu, but it did not have adequate fresh water supply, and the surrounding sea was infested by pirates.
Their efforts to establish trading posts in Acheh, North Sumatra, and the Andaman islands were all futile. During that time, the Kedah Sultanate in northen Peninsular Malaysia was facing regular coastal raids by the roving Bugis seafarers plus incessant hostilities from its northen neighbour, Siam. The reigning Sultan Muhammad had requested help from the British against the Bugis, but they did not succeed to secure the region.
His successor was Sultan Muhammad Jiwa (1710-1773), and then Sultan Abdullah (1773-1797), who again requested British help against Siamese aggression. In return, he offered them Penang island, which then belonged to Kedah. Penang suited the British well as it had a protected harbour located between China and India, the seat of the EIC, established in England in 1600. In those days, they used to carry tea, silks, and pottery from China to Europe, where they fetched high prices. Close to Madras, Penang served as an excellent naval base for England, which was at war with France over territorial disputes in India. Situated at the entrance to the Melaka Straits, it was a potential springboard for the British to partake in South-east Asian trade activities.
The EIC despatched Captain Francis Light to visit Kedah in 1785 to discuss the ruler’s offer. Sultan Abdullah officially offered Penang island on lease to the EIC on two conditions:-
- The EIC must protect Kedah from all its enemies, and
- The EIC must pay the Sultan RM30,000.00 annually.
Light conveyed the Sultan’s offer to the British Governor-General in Calcutta, India, who complied immediately. Regarding the Sultan’s request for military assistance, he said that required the approval of his superiors in London. However, he instructed Light to make preparations for opening the new trading post. Light returned to Kedah, and obtained permission from the Sultan to proceed to Penang island.
On August 1, 1786, Light raised the British flag on the island, renaming it Prince of Wales Island. The British settlement was called Georgetown after the reigning King George III of England. Without further ado, Light set to work to develop his island.
Meanwhile, trouble was brewing again between Kedah and Siam. In the same year of 1786, the Siamese invaded the northern regions comprising Patani, Terengganu and Kedah. Sultan Abdullah beseeched the British for help but they did not want to be involved in Southeast Asian hostilities. In 1788, Light received the answer from London: the EIC had decided not to extend military support to Kedah.
The Sultan was infuriated. As it was, the Company had delayed in paying compensation to him, and now he felt cheated by the British. In 1791, he gathered a fleet in the Prai River to reclaim Penang island. Light got wind of the impending attack, and ordered the British merchant fleet to strike first. In the ensuing sea battle, the Kedah fleet was destroyed off Prai.
The Sultan had no choice but to sign, in May 1791, the peace treaty with the British. It specified that the Sultan was to allow them to trade, and in return receive appropriate compensation.
To expand their territory and power, the English began to search for another port further south, and closer to the major shipping routes. At that time, two princes of the Johor Empire, Tengku Hussein and his brother Tengku Abdul Rahman, were fighting to ascend the throne. Tengku Hussein was backed by the Bendahara of Pahang and the Temenggong of Johor; while the Dutch sided with Tengku Abdul Rahman.
The Temenggong who lived in Singapore came into contact with Stamford Raffles, an employee of the EIC, in 1819. He approved Raffle’s request to establish a trading post in Singapore on condition that the Englishman acknowledged Tengku Hussein as the rightful Sultan of Johor. Raffles agreed and signed an agreement with both the Sultan and the Temenggong.
On January 29, 1819, Raffles sailed aboard his ship "Indiana" into Singapore, straight into the war of succession raging there. The Dutch Governor-General in Batavia protested Raffles’ interference, and sent an official letter to London. Finally, in 1824, England and Holland signed the Treaty of London pertaining to the East Indies, which among other things officially handed over Melaka to the English. In effect, the agreement was the future division of Malaysia and Indonesia, demarcating their respective political borders.
As it was, at the advent of 1824, the British had three settlements in Malaysia, namely Penang island, Singapore and Melaka. Collectively known as the Straits Settlements, they were put under the charge of a British governor.
(b) British Malaya
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Initially, the British favoured a policy of non-intervention in the political affairs of the other Malay states, but this policy changed in 1874. Civil war had erupted in Perak between rival groups of Chinese tin miners and also between ambitious factions in the state’s aristocracy. One of the aspirants, Raja Abdullah, approached the British Governor in Singapore Sir Andrew Clarke to restore peace in the state, install him as Sultan and appoint a British Resident to advise him on administrative matters.
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 Malay warrior Tok Guru Peramu. |
These acts of intervention were swiftly followed by others in Negeri Sembilan and Pahang, where members of the Malay aristocracy rebelled against the impudence of the colonialists. They were led by Datuk Bahaman, Tok Gajah and Mat Kilau. The rebellion continued until 1895, when the British brought in foreign military police to quash the resistance.
In Perak, some elements of the Perak aristocracy hostile to British intervention of their expectations and privileges endorsed the murder of British Resident J.W. Birch. The British, however, retaliated swiftly and harshly, executing some of the convicted persons and exiling others.
In 1896, Perak, Selangor, Pahang and Negeri Sembilan became the Federated Malay States under a central government in Kuala Lumpur. The Resident-General headed the administration and advised the four Sultans on all matters, except those pertaining to Islam and Malay customs and traditions. The Sultans attended an annual conference known as "Durbar", the first one held in Kuala Kangsar in 1897.
By-and-by, real power passed from the Sultans to the British. During the second Durbar in Kuala Lumpur in 1903, Sultan Idris of Perak protested the centralisation of power adopted by the British. In 1909, the British formed a council whose members were the British High Commissioner or the Governor of the Straits Settlements, the Resident-General of the Federated Malay States, the four Sultans of the FMS, the four British Residents, and representatives of the people.
This Council only served to put more power into the hands of the High Commissioner, and received even more criticism from the Malay rulers who eventually withdrew from the Council.
In 1909, the Unfederated Malay States, comprising Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan and Terengganu, which had been under Siamese suzerainty from time to time, finally came under British influence with the Treaty of Bangkok. In return, Britain gave Siam a collosal sum in monetary loan, and pledged not to interfere in its internal affairs.
By 1914, the political scenario in Malaysia was as follows:-
- 1. The Straits Settlements: British crown colony headed by a British governor. It comprised Singapore, Melaka, Pulau Pinang, the Cocos Isles and Christmas Isle, with Singapore as capital.
- 2. The Federated Malay States: British protectorate headed by a British High Commissioner-cum-Governor of Straits Settlements. The FMS were Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak and Selangor, with the capital in Kuala Lumpur.
- 3. The Unfederated Malay States: British protectorate under the tutelage of a British Adviser in each state, who was responsible to the British High Commissioner. These comprised Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu.
- 4. Sarawak: British protectorate ruled by the Brooke family, descendants of James Brooke, the White Rajah of Sarawak. The capital was Kuching.
- 5. Sabah: British protectorate ruled by the Chartered Company of British North Borneo, with its capital in Jesselton, now known as Kota Kinabalu.
The racial balance, which had hitherto been almost 100 per cent Malay, began to reflect a strong mingling of races such as Chinese, Indians and Europeans. The British colonial administration held the reins of power, leaving only very limited authority to the Sultans.
New developments in industry, communications and agriculture in the Malay States offered employment of labour at all levels. British Malaya became a land of promise for many people. At one end of the economic scale, there were the European and Chinese merchant-house or joint-stock companies with their intensive capital and executive staff; while at the other end was the Chinese, Tamil or Cingalese labourer and the Sumatran or Javanese villager. Other occupational groupings included traders, shopkeepers, teachers, clerks, skilled workers, watchmen and policemen. The population of the Malay States rose dramatically from less than 500,000 people in 1850 to about four million in 1932, with those on the west coast affected most.
The British colonial government opened gold and tin mines and built roads between the rapidly growing urban centres like Kuala Lumpur, Seremban and Johor Bahru. It also introduced the railway to Malaysia, with the first tracks laid between Taiping and Port Weld in 1885 for the export of tin ore from the mines to the port. The telegraph lines mostly followed the railway tracks, and where there were no post offices the railway stations accepted private telegraphs for transmission.
In the agricultural sector, the trend was to move from subsistence agriculture to cash-crop farming: from spices to sugar-cane and from vegetables to coffee and rubber-planting.
(c) British North Borneo
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James Brooke was brought up in India. He was fascinated by life in the East and was deeply influenced by Raffles’s dream of establishing a benevolent English administration while fostering native welfare. Arriving in Singapore in 1839, enroute to northern Borneo, Brooke was entrusted with a message from the Singapore Governor to Raja Muda Hashim of Brunei. When he reached Borneo in 1841, Brooke found the Raja Muda engaged in a life and death struggle against the Malay chiefs in the Sarawak River region. Brooke assisted the Raja to quell the rebellion and in return was granted the title ‘Raja’ and a personal fief over the territory between Tanjung Datu and the Samarahan River, which later came to be known as the First Division. In the years that followed, Raja James Brooke established a firm government at Kuching and further expanded his dominions at the expense of the Brunei Sultanate. Within a remarkably short time, Brooke was able to consolidate his authority along the Sarawak River. He pardoned rebellious Brunei Malay chiefs and gave them positions of administrative authority while at the same time limiting their power.
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Many expectations of businessmen that Sarawak’s White Rajah would open the floodgates of commerce into Borneo did not materialise and therefore everybody was sadly disillusioned. Brooke was against Western commercialism mainly because of the adverse effect it would have on indigenous culture. In 1863, a British consul was appointed, effectively recognising that Sarawak was a separate entity from Brunei.
By the time he died in 1868, Brooke’s territory of Sarawak stretched up to Tanjung Kidurong, and he had established a dynasty of "White Rajas" who were to rule Sarawak until World War II. His nephew and successor, Raja Charles Brooke, continued with the expansionist policy, and by 1905, with the acquisition of Lawas, Sarawak had acquired the boundaries it holds till this day. The third Brooke ruler, Raja Vyner Brooke,came to power in 1917.
The Brookes’ style of government was personal and it helped establish a unique identity for Sarawak. A fundamental characteristic common was the tendency to view the population in terms of ethnic communities. The Brookes divided the range of linguistic and culture groups in Sarawak into three basic categories, each with distinct roles. ‘Malays’ were to be discouraged from participating in trade, which the Brookes considered incompatible with their prescribed function of assisting in Sarawak’s administration. Those Malays who were not involved in administration should be farmers and small land holders. In order to fill the economic gap, Chinese immigration should be encouraged and the Chinese would then trade, cultivate or mine. Finally, the Ibans would serve as Sarawak’s fighting forces under the Raja’s personal command. The use of ‘Malay’ as a general term for Muslims in mid 19th century Sarawak was perhaps strengthened by the Brooke usage.
In 1941, Raja Vyner Brooke took a step towards democratic government by granting the state a written Constitution. However, the Japanese overran Sarawak in the same year. After the war, when he returned to resume administration, Vyner realised that the state could not recover and progress on its own resources. This, plus British government pressure led to Sarawak becoming a British Crown Colony in 1946. However, the Malay community in Sarawak opposed the move, and the subsequent tensions culminated in the assassination of the second British colonial governor in 1949. This led to the collapse of the anti-cession movement and left a schism in Malay politics for a long time until local elections were introduced in 1959.
In 1963, Sarawak accepted the proposal put forward by first Malayan Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman to join the Federation of Malaysia. The decision enraged Indonesia, and there was armed confrontation for three years before Sarawak"s sovereignty witin Malaysia was finally acknowledged by its southern neighbour in 1966.
The territory of Sabah, prior to the activities of Western adventurers in the region towards the close of the nineteenth century, consisted of scattered chieftains and autonomous communities who had for centuries paid a general allegiance to the Sultan of Brunei. In 1704, the Sultan ceded the land east of Maridu Bay to the Sultan of Sulu in retun for his help in a sucession dispute. (Some 250 years later, the Philippines government used this cession as a basis for its claim over Sabah.)
During the last quarter of the nineteenth century when Brunei"s control over Sabah became extremely tenuous, an American trader called Moses obtained a lease over the area from the Sultan. He sold the lease to an Austrian baron; and finally it passed into the hands of an English businessman called Alfred Dent who signed treaties with both Brunei and Sulu converting the lease into a cession. In 1881, Dent established the Chartered Company of British North Borneo to manage his acquisition. The Company began to acquire odd pieces of territory not obtained under the original cession, and gradually their area became to be known as British North Borneo.
Meanwhile, the British government exerted direct naval pressure on the Brunei Sultanate forcing the Sultan to cede Labuan to them in 1846. They had hoped to transform the island, located some eight kilometres off the Sabah coast at the mouth of the Brunei River, into another Singapore serving the trade of northern Borneo. But as it turned out, the island"s coal resources were of low commercial quality. In 1890, the British Colonial Office in London handed over the administration of the island to the new British North Borneo Company of Sabah. Established in London in 1881, the company enjoyed a degree of protection under the British Crown who appointed Treacher as the first Governor of North Borneo. In 1885, England, Germany and Spain signed a convention recognising Spanish sovereignty over Sulu. In return, Spain withdrew its former claims on North Borneo.
In 1905, the British North Borneo Company returned Labuan to the Colonial Office, who, in 1907, added it to the Straits Settlements administered from Singapore. During the Second World War (1941-1945), the island along with the rest of Borneo fell under Japanese Occupation. After the war, Dent’s company surrendered its right to the British Government and Sabah became the new British Colony of North Borneo.
As compared with the effective management of Sarawak, the administration over Sabah’s economy in the early days was quite loose and weak. Collecting taxes was never easy. As historian Barbara Watson Andaya wrote "Without a personality like Brooke and without access to a fighting force like the Ibans, the company found the collection of taxes difficult." It was probably the oppressive nature of the taxes that incited a Sulu prince called Mat Salleh to declare war on the company in 1895. He was a charismatic leader with a great genius for military affairs. According to contemporary accounts he was endowed with considerable mystical power and great physical strength. He carried on a fierce campaign against the British until he was killed in 1900. After his death, his followers continued a guerilla war for another five years.
In 1963, Sabah along with Labuan accepted the offer by Tunku Abdul Rahman to become an independent state within the Federation of Malaysia. This decision was challenged by Indonesia and the Philippines, but both governments finally relented and recognised the sovereignty of the new nation by the end of 1966.
In 1984, Labuan became the second Federal Territory after Kuala Lumpur. However, on May 20, 1987, both were put under the Federal Territory Development Division in the Prime Minister"s Department, with Labuan’s day-to-day affairs run by the Municipal Council of Labuan. Today, it is the sole deepwater anchorage in Malaysia, and has been declared a free port as well as an International Offshore Financial Centre (IOFC). Recognising its strategic location and proximity to major shipping routes and offshore oil and gas fields, the Federal government has launched a long-term infrastructural development program to encourage the influx of both domestic and foreign investments into Labuan.
c. Pre-independence
(a) Japanese Occupation
 S.K. Shiiba, a Japanese businessman in pre-war Malaya, emerged as an officer during the Japanese Occupation. |
Simultaneously, they had launched attacks in East Malaysia, where oil-rich Miri fell on December 16, Kuching on December 25, Sibu on December 27, Labuan on New Year"s Day 1942, swiftly followed by the downfall of Kota Kinabalu and Sandakan.
As they traversed southwards across the Peninsula, the Japanese swept its defenders, comprising British, Australian, Indian and Malay fighting regiments, ahead of them along trunk roads and jungle trails. Kuala Lumpur fell on January 11, 1942, and the British withdrew further and further until they reached Singapore. By end of January, the Japanese forces were gathered in strength across the Tebrau Straits, ready to attack the last British stronghold.
 Despite putting up a strong resistance, the British Army in Malaya finally surrended to the Japanese on 15 February 1942 . |
Initially, the Malays and the other races in Malaya looked upon the Japanese as "liberators", and did not resist their conquest. They believed in the slogans such as "Asia for Asians" mouthed by the Japanese. But as each promise was broken, it dawned upon them that they were subjected under the yoke of a new colonialism. In fact, the Japanese perpetuated more terror upon the locals than the British masters ever did.
Under the Japanese, the police department was divided into two divisions, namely the Tekikan secret service and the Kempeitai military police. While the Tekikan roped in all elements from among the members of the public thought to be anti-Japanese or pro-British, the Kempeitai branded those arrested as guilty and showed them no mercy. Between them, they struck terror into the hearts of the people.
The Japanese military administration introduced their own currency, national policies and education system. Their language, Nippon-go, was taught in all schools as the national language. Pupils were taught about the Japanese way of life, their songs, their customs, and their social norms and mores. Even the name of Malaya was officially changed to Malai.
The economy came to a standstill. During the British withdrawal, they had destroyed roads, bridges and other infrastructure to stop the Japanese advance. There was no external trade, and the products manufactured by hastily established domestic factories were of inferior quality.
As the situation worsened, the authorities rationed food. Health conditions deteriorated, and the Japanese recruited able-bodied men to work as forced labour on the Death Railway in Thailand. The Japanese currency was worthless, and inflation ran wild. The price of eggs which had cost 3 Malayan cents each in December 1941 rose to 35 "Malayan dollars" in 1945.
Before long, an underground resistance organisation, the Malayan People"s Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) was formed. Although it was spearheaded by the Malayan Communist party, formed in 1930, whose members were majority Chinese, the MPAJA received support from Malays, Indians, and also British military officers who had escaped from Japanese prisons.
When the Japanese took over Malaya, they released many leaders of the Malay nationalist movement, including Ibrahim Yaacob, who had been imprisoned by the British authorities. However, these leaders did not take kindly to Japanese colonialism either and instead supported the MPAJA struggle; and in retaliation the Japanese, in June 1942, banned the Young Malays Association (KMM). In 1944, British forces gradually began to return to Southeast Asia, and made contacts with the MPAJA, providing them with weapons, money, foodstuffs and medical supplies.
In July 1945, the Japanese banned another nationalist movement known as KRIS. On August 12, 1945, two prominent KRIS leaders, Dr. Burhanuddin Helmi and Ibrahim Yaacob, had a meeting in Taiping, Perak, with Dr. Sukarno and Muhammad Hatta of Indonesia. The agenda was the union of Malaya and Indonesia to form Indonesia Raya. However, the plan never got off the ground as on August 15, 1945, Imperial Japan surrendered to the Allied Supreme Command in the Far East following the atomic bombing of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
(b) Freedom Struggle
Click to listen the narration Video Clip
 Za"aba"s vision was to create a new and progressive Malay society |
Although there was tremendous economic development in the country, the locals did not benefit much from it. The British only built roads, railway tracks, hospitals and schools in areas where they had commercial activities and business interests. These included mining sites, rubber estates, major towns and ports. The local Malays in the rural areas toiled as farmers in their ancestral fields, oblivious of the modernisation process taking place in their own country.
In terms of education and employment too, they were neglected. The higher and better-paying positions in the colonial government were reserved for the "better-educated" Europeans, and the other races who had settled in the towns, and attended English-medium schools.
 Za"aba being awarded the "Tan Sri" title by Malaysia"s first monarch Yang di-Pertuan Agong Tuanku Syed Putra Jamalullail. |
The religion of Islam played a vital role in these efforts. Graduates from Al-Azhar University of Cairo published a regular magazine "Al-Imam" to discuss religious and social issues concerning the Malays. It also touched on the weaknesses found among the Malays so as to bring forth efforts towards self-betterment. The four main figures behind "Al-Imam" were Sheikh Mohd. Tahir, Syed Sheikh, Haji Abbas and Sheikh Mohd. Salim, all of whom were educated in the Malay, Arabic and English mediums.
When "Al-Imam" was discontinued in 1908, another group known as "Young Muslims" took prominence. They preached that for the Malays to excel they have to adhere strictly to the teachings of Islam, and to pursue knowledge without discriminating between men and women. To achieve economic success, they must utilise the banking system, the cooperative schemes, and other progressive ideas.
The modernist ideas of the "Young Muslims" of early 20th century Malaysia met with stiff resistance from adherents of the Old School who held strongly to prescribed dogma and were reluctant to try out anything that smelt of innovation. Together with officials from the State Islamic Religious Affairs Council, they waged a vilification campaign against the Young Muslim organisation.
In 1918, they published a magazine called "Pengasuh" or Educator which proclaimed that the Young Muslims were non-believers, and strived to prevent them from teaching the masses. When that failed, a new law was passed whereby all publications must obtain approval from the rulers prior to being printed and distributed. In some states, Young Muslim literature was declared illegal.
Despite the ban and other hindrances, the Young Muslims grew from strength to strength and their supporters increased dramatically. The people wanted change and progress, and thus the New Order surpassed the Old Order. After the mid 1920s, the Young Muslims began to focus on political issues and demanded more rights and political freedom for the Malays.
They churned out magazines and newsletters, the most prominent being the monthly Seruan Azhar (The Call of Al-Azhar), and Pilihan Timur or the "Choice of the East" which exposed the atrocities committed by the British in Malaya and the Dutch in Indonesia. The ideas fermented revolutionary fervour among the Malays on both sides of the Melaka Straits, but some members believed that the organisation ought to be more aggressive in its methods.
Soon, a radical group splintered away and formed their own political party with the objective of driving the British colonialists out of the homeland. They were led by Malay-educated intellectuals, who demanded rapid changes with complete Independence as the ultimate objective.
In 1922, the authorities opened the Sultan Idris Teachers’ Training College in Tanjung Malim on the Perak-Selangor border. Named after Sultan Idris of Perak, the college offered a broad-based curriculum comprising subjects such as Physiology, Health Science, Geography, Agriculture and Handicrafts. Fully aware of the problems facing their people, the students soon became the mouthpiece for Malay grievances. However, they were not outrightly hostile against the British masters. They preferred to discuss, debate, and write books and articles in the hope of encouraging the Malays to improve their living standards. They emphasised on the importance of education and business activities.
A prominent Malay writer of the times was Zainal Abdin bin Ahmad, better known as Za’aba. Educated both in Malay and English, Za’aba strove to enrich the Malay language in his pursuit to fulfil his dream towards creating a new and progressive Malay society. He translated modernist articles from Islamic reformation magazines, which were later compiled and published in a book called "Umbi Kejayaan" or the "Roots of Success". He studied Malay problems in detail in order to help alleviate them. At times, he sharply criticised his people as in one of his essays entitled "The Poverty of the Malays", carried by the Malay Mail on December 1, 1923.
In the controversy between the Young Muslim organisation and the religious scholars of the Old Order, Za’aba sided the previous. He translated some articles from Islamic reformation magazines, which were later compiled and published in a book called Umbi Kejayaan, or the "Foundations of Success". The literature portrayed some modernist ideas on Islam, and was banned in Perak. The state religious officials ordered Za’aba to seek royal pardon from the Sultan.
In 1924, Za’aba formed the Malay Literary Society in Kuala Lumpur with members from among civil servants educated in English. In 1930, another group from the Teachers’ College formed the Malayan Youth organisation, with 35 members. Led by Ibrahim bin Haji Yaacob, this group was considered radical. For ideas and fighting spirit, they looked towards the Middle East and the Indonesian nationalist movements. They disbanded, but grouped together again in 1938 as the more radical Young Malays Association (KMM).
The KMM had two objectives: they wanted Independence for Malaya, and union with Indonesia. They mouthed anti-British slogans to make the people rise up in arms against the British. Apart from Ibrahim Yaacob, the more prominent KMM leaders were Ishak bin Haji Muhammad and Ahmad Boestamam.
Another radical figure in the Malayan political scene of the 1930s was Dr. Burhanuddin al-Helmy. He became actively involved in politics upon his return from India. In 1930, he became the editor of a staunchly anti-British newspaper, that finally led to his arrest. However, when the Japanese occupied Malaya, they released him to utilise his high level of education and knowledge. They made him Adviser for Malay Customs and Culture. At that time, Dr. Burhanuddin was one of the leaders of KRIS, an acronym for an association established for Indonesian nationalist residing in Peninsular Malaysia. Like the KMM, he wanted Independence for Malaya and union with Indonesia. He called the envisioned new nation "Melayu Raya" or Greater Malay Nation. In 1946, he became President of the National Malay Party of Malaya (PKMM), and in 1956 President of the newly-formed Islamic party, PAS.
Following that move, many other nationalist organisations were launched, among them the Malay Pen Friends Fraternity, and the Singapore Malay Association (KMS) whose first president was Muhammad Eunos bin Abdullah. In 1937, KMS branches were opened in Melaka and Penang. In March 1938, the Malay Society was formed in Pahang; while in June the same year the Selangor Malay Society (PMS) opened in Kuala Lumpur.
The first president of PMS was attorney Tengku Ismail bin Tengku Muhammad Yasin. By 1939, Malay political organisations had been established in Negeri Sembilan, Province Wellesley, Penang island, Pahang and Melaka. In 1939, all of them including PMS and KMS convened in Kuala Lumpur for the first time ever. The meeting resulted in the formation of the Federation of Malay Societies in Peninsular Malaysia.
In the years prior to World War Two, there were three distinct types of leaders in Malaya. The first group comprised religious reformers such as Sheikh Muhammad Tahir and Syed Sheikh al-Hadi, who were educated in the Arabic medium. The second group were Malay-educated intellectuals led by anti-British radicals such as Ibrahim Yaacob. The third group were English-educated Malays who realised the dilemma of their people yet they were prepared to negotiate gradual changes. They hoped that the British themselves would help the Malays better their lot. They were known as moderate nationalists, and were officially organised as a group for the first time in Singapore.
The Japanese defeat in 1945 did not change the effect of their four year oppressive rule in the minds of the Southeast Asian people. At the same time, the myth surrounding the invincibility of the white colonialists was shattered beyond repair. The British had signed numerous agreements with the Malay rulers pledging them protection and in return received all kinds of privileges and facilities. However, their might was crushed before the advancing armies of Imperial Japan in just 70 days. As such, the people began to doubt their ability and even the validity of their agreements to offer protection. They had gone through much pain, suffering and fear during the war years without help from the British, and therefore felt they could go on living without British protection
Japanese propaganda had also played a vital role in degrading British rule. They sowed in the heart and minds of the people that their social, economic and political backwardness was caused by Western colonialism. In its place, they preached Pan-Asianism telling the people to be proud of being Asian, and at the same time showed sympathy to the plight of fellow Asians involved in the struggle for independence. In short, the Japanese Occupation awakened a new consciousness regarding political awareness among Malayans.
No group was more politically alert of the situation then the Malayan Communist Party which by that time made great gains in strength and recognition. When the British returned to claim Malaya, they were faced with an entirely different situation. The loss of confidence in British protection was manifest at all levels of Malayan society. In November 1945, a Malay Nationalist Party, with Indonesian backing, was formed with the intention of providing a political voice for the Malays. In the following month, the Malayan Democratic Union appeared, drawing its members mainly from the Chinese of the professional class and aspiring to be the party for non-Malays.
Faced with rising opposition and demands for freedom, the British, in 1946, put forth the proposal for the formation of the Malayan Union. The Union included Penang and Melaka, but excluded Singapore which was retained as a Crown colony. The Malayan Union, however, was vehemently opposed by the Malays led by the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), formed in the same year. Ultimately, the British had to abandon the plan, replacing it with the Federation of Malaya in 1948.
The post-war years also saw the emergence of the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) in 1946, and the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) in 1949. In 1953, the three mainstream parties - UMNO, MIC and MCA, formed a coalition called the Alliance. With the objective of establishing an independent and sovereign state within the British Commonwealth of Nations, the Alliance urged for democratic elections in Malaya.
d. Malayan Independence
(a) Malayan Union
Click to listen the narration Video Clip
 Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj (first Malaysian Prime Minister, 1957-1969) signing the Declaration of Independence with the British administrators of Malaya. |
 The Tunku on his return from London (1956) after signing the Declaration of Independence. |
From the British point of view, the Malayan Union was similar to the system of government which they had implemented in their other colonial territories. Eventually, the scheme would be replaced by a democratic form of self-government offering equal citizenship to all Malayans on a wide basis, where all citizens would have equal rights including admission to government service, and in due course a vote in government elections.
Prior to the publication of the proposals, London had despatched special envoy Sir Harold MacMichael to call upon the Malay Sultans to obtain their agreement for the British Crown to implement the legislation of a new constitution. Taking into account the mood of the times in the aftermath of the war years and the urgency of the matter at hand leaving little time for consultation, all the Sultans signed the agreement.
However, the publication of the Malayan Union proposal incensed the Malays, especially as it eroded the power and status of the Sultans and the loss of rights for the Malays as a whole. They threw their support behind the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) founded by Dato Onn bin Jaafar of Johor in March 1946. UMNO vehemently resisted the introduction of the Malayan Union, and Dato Onn toured the country leading demonstrations of national mourning. The issue aroused widespread political consciousness among the Malays. The stiff opposition in Malaya and informed criticism at home prompted the British government to recall the idea altogether. In its place, a provisional kind of caretaker government was installed while the British set up a working Committee comprising Malays, and later a Consultative Committee on which the other Malayan races were represented to submit reports.
Basing on the reports from the two committees, the British Government formulated the Federation of Malaya Agreement, the terms of which were put into practice in February 1948. Its territories were identical with those of the abandoned Malayan Union. The chief official of the Federation was a British High Commissioner, whose appointment must be endorsed by the Malay sultans. There were two councils: an Executive Council and a Legislative Council, while the sultans were members of the Conference of Rulers. The issue of citizenship of the Federation became much more restricted than under the Malayan Union.
The new Federation was threatened with very serious law and order problems almost from day one of its inception. Armed violence became a daily occurrence, with several attacks on police stations, rubber plantations, tin mines and communications. The main victims were Europeans and Chinese, and evidence pointed to an armed revolt spearheaded by Malayan communists. As the number of dead increased, the Government proclaimed a national State of Emergency on June 18, 1948.
The Malayan Communist Party and all its associate organisations were banned. The Government implemented the ‘Briggs Plan’, under which heavily guarded new villages were opened to resettle the large Chinese squatter population. This resettlement scheme cut off the Communist supply line and seriously set back their campaign of terror.
The communist insurgency that raged through Malaya from 1948 till the late 1950s provided the people with a common enemy. Unity and security became the coveted objective of all Malayans, regardless of creed, colour or race. Even the ultra-nationalists from among the Malay community were less inclined to clamour for their "hereditary" rights. UMNO leaders of the time, such as party president Dato" Onn Jaafar, were in favour of equal citizenship for all.
Under the twin pressures of a communist rebellion and the development of a strong Malay nationalist movement, the British introduced elections, starting at local level in 1951. Political cooperation among the three main ethnic groups in the country, that is the Malays, Chinese and Indians, was forged by the formation of the Alliance, which comprised UMNO, the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA), and the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC). In the first Federal elections of 1955, the Alliance won 51 out of the 52 seats contested. Tunku Abdul Rahman, the leader of the Alliance, was appointed the first Chief Minister of the Federation.
In August 1955, the Tunku and the Rulers had talks with the visiting British Secretary of State for the Colonies. It was agreed that a conference should be held in London in early 1956 to discuss future relations between the Federation and Britain. For the Alliance, ‘Merdeka’ had become a slogan.
The Alliance then took the initiative in an attempt to settle the Communist war. A meeting was arranged in December 1955 in Baling, Kedah but ended in a deadlock. This made the Alliance all the more anxious to secure independence at an early date in order to counter the Communist’s claim to represent Malayan nationalism. The London Conference was attended by representative of the sultans, the Chief of the Federation, and three other Alliance leaders. Talks lasted three weeks and it was agreed that Independence should be proclaimed by August 31, 1957. Subsequently, a Constitutional Commission was appointed. The Reid Commission held its meetings in Malaya between May and October, 1956, and completed a long and detailed Report which provided the basis for Malaya’s new government.
At a ceremony held in Kuala Lumpur on August 31, 1957, Malaya’s Independence was proclaimed. Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of Malaya, and held the post until 1970.
(b) Formation of Malaysia
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The idea to form the Federation of Malaysia was first mooted by the first Prime Minister of Malaya, Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra al-Haj, in Singapore on 27 May 1961. In his official address at the Foreign Correspondents’ Association of South-East Asia, the Tunku publicly announced a plan calling for closer economic cooperation between the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, the British protectorate of Brunei and the colonies of Sarawak and North Borneo.
Although the majority of Malayans and Singaporeans acted favourably to the merger feeler, there were some elements in both countries who questioned the wisdom of the move. The people of the Borneon territories were even more cautious. The Pan-Malayan Islamic Party of Malaya was concerned that the union would lead to Chinese dominance and subsequently undermine the special position of the Malays. In Singapore, the left-wing opposition saw the Tunku’s proposals as a hindrance to their plans to topple Premier Lee Kuan Yew’s PAP government and establish an independent Republic of Singapore.
The latter half of 1961 saw a series of discussions on the prospects of the new ‘Malaysia’. These proceeded along two channels: direct negotiations between Malaya and Singapore on the details of the merger; and talks between leaders of all the territories which might come together to form Malaysia. The latter group had an opportunity to confer on the subject in a regional meeting of the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association in Singapore in July 1961. The meeting resulted in the formation of the Malaysian Solidarity Consultative Committee with representatives from each of the five territories involved. Among the Committee’s objectives were to gather the views and opinions of their respective peoples, and also to encourage the discussion and dissemination of information on the proposed Federation of Malaysia. The Committee subsequently held meetings in Jesselton (Sabah), Kuching (Sarawak), Kuala Lumpur and Singapore. Although Brunei did not attend the first Singapore conference, it sent observers to all the subsequent meetings.
The Consultative Committee went to great lengths to protect the interests of the Borneon territories. In its memorandum on Malaysia dated February 1962, it recommended a federal constitution with a strong central government equipped with safeguards on many topics including religion, language, citizenship and migration.
By August 1961, Tunku Abdul Rahman and Lee Kuan Yew had reached an agreement in principle on a ‘merger’ between Malaya and Singapore. The next task for both Prime Ministers was to carry their elected governments with them and to popularise the idea of the merger among their peoples generally. While the Tunku quickly secured the support of the federal House of Representatives in Kuala Lumpur, Lee experienced a more difficult time with uncompromising Singapore politicians. Nevertheless, in November 1961, they both signed a ‘Heads Of Agreement’ document for a merger between the Federation of Malaya and Singapore.
Tunku visited London in the same month, and reached agreement in principle with the British Government on the idea of Malaysia and the proposed merger with Singapore as a first move within the wider framework. The British were quite convinced that a Federation of Malaysia comprising Malaya, Singapore and the Borneo territories, was a desirable objective. In the case of North Borneo and Sarawak, they reiterated that the final decision was dependent on the outcome of consultation with the peoples of these two territories. For that purpose, a Commission Of Enquiry was set up consisting of a Chairman and four members, two of whom were nominated by the British Government and two by the Malayan Government. The Commission was to determine the views of the people there and to submit its recommendations.
Between February and April 1962, the Chairman of the Commission, Lord Cobbold, a former Bank of England Governor, visited North Borneo and Sarawak and paid an informal courtesy call on the Sultan of Brunei pertaining to the union. In the Commission’s Report, published in June 1962, it recommended the formation of the Federation of Malaysia as ‘an attractive workable project in the best interests of the Borneo territories’.
On 1 August 1962, following a series of meetings in London, it was agreed that the proposed Federation of Malaysia be officially declared on 31 August 1963. In the meantime, an inter-governmental committee representing Britain, Malaya, Sarawak and North Borneo was established to work out the constitutional details and the form of the necessary safeguards for North Borneo and Sarawak.
The road to form Malaysia was not milk and honey all the way. At all stages, the planning was delicate and at times controversial within the territories concerned and also within the British connection. To begin with, the two parts of the infant nation were divided by several hundred miles of sea. Its crescent-shaped territory had a coastline about 1600 miles long.
Furthermore, from 1962 onwards, there was the new factor of external opposition to the idea of Malaysia. The first external challenge came from the government of President Macapagal of the Philippines, who expressed concern at the proposed changes on its doorstep, especially in North Borneo. Then, President Sukarno of Indonesia who viewed the formation of Malaysia as a neo-colonialst plot declared a state of ‘confrontation’. Accusing the Malayan government of being a puppet of British imperial policy in the region, the Indonesians launched armed attacks on Peninsular Malaya and across the land frontiers of North Borneo and Sarawak.
The first few months of 1963 saw the founding fathers of Malaysia faced with objections from the Philippines, embroiled in armed confrontation ‘with Indonesia, and burdened with a whole series of internal problems, including the agreement on financial arrangements between the Federation of Malaya and Singapore and the checks and safeguards to be written into a complex constitution, especially in relation to the Borneo territories.
In February 1963, the inter-governmental committee working out the constitutional proposals for North Borneo and Sarawak within the Malaysian Federation published its report, which provided the basis of agreement for the Borneo territories’ entry into Malaysia. The August 1963 elections in Sarawak paved the way for a ministerial system under Chief Minister Stephen Ningkan. At about the same time North Borneo, which had been officially renamed ‘Sabah’, also moved towards a ministerial system under Chief Minister Donald Stephens.
However, the separate negotiations for Brunei’s entry into Malaysia were unsuccessful and finally broke down in June 1963. In August 1963, the summit meeting held in Manila to discuss the issues of Indonesian confrontation and Filipino claims and objections agreed that a United Nations mission be despatched to conduct another enquiry in North Borneo and Sarawak on the wishes of the peoples there in regard to Malaysia. Consequently, the date for the inauguration of Malaysia was deferred from 31 August to 16 September. The United Nations team was satisfied with its enquiry, and announced that the issue of entry into the new Malaysian union had been widely debated in the Borneo territories, and also that the elections held there had been fair with a sizeable majority being for Malaysia. However, both Indonesia and the Philippines did not accept the UN verdict. Undeterred with the disturbing circumstances, Malaysia was born on 16 September 1963.
The hostilities between the neighbours finally ended with an agreement signed in Bangkok in1966. In the same year, the Philippines gave formal recognition to Malaysia. Singapore, however, in 1965, opted to leave Malaysia to become an independent republic.
In all the eight general elections held since the formation of Malaysia, the ruling Alliance coalition - now known as the Solidarity Front or Barisan Nasional, has easily retained its majority in Parliament. There was one occasion, in 1969, when it lost its overall two-thirds majority. Communal tensions flared in the infamous May 13 incident in Kuala Lumpur.
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Setting its sights on Vision 2020, Malaysia strives to deliver the expectations of Malaysians from all walks of life as the nation stands on the threshold of the 21st century.