1) THE LAND

a. Location

b. Climate

c. Topography

d. Geology

e. Flora

f. Fauna

a. Location

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Malaysia is situated at one of the world's most important crossroads.

The Federation of Malaysia is situated at one of the most important crossroads in the world. From antiquity, its strategic geographical position made Malaysia a natural meeting point for traders from East and West, riding on the North-East monsoon from November till March and the South-West monsoon from May till September. Lying between 1 and 7 degrees north of the Equator at longitudes 100 to 119 degrees east, it sits at the centre of Southeast Asia, making her the ideal springboard into the fast-growing Asia-Pacific region.

Malaysia comprises two major land masses facing each other across the South China Sea: Peninsular Malaysia and the Bornean states of Sabah and Sarawak. The Peninsula has a land area of 134,680 square kilometres, while Sabah and Sarawak together cover 202,202 square kilometres.

Peninsular Malaysia, which is the tail-end of the Asian continent, is attached to the Kingdom of Thailand in the north via a natural land bride, and to the Republic of Singapore in the south via a three-quarter mile long Causeway. Across the Straits of Melaka, which ranks among the busiest shipping lanes in the world, lies the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The states of Sabah and Sarawak, which occupy northern Borneo, share the island with the Indonesian territory of Kalimantan and the Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam. Malaysian air space serves as the Asia-Pacific and Trans-Occidental air routes.

b. Climate

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Welcome to the sunny part of the world!

Malaysia is blessed with perpetual sunshine. Lying entirely in the equatorial zone, its climate is governed by the seasonal North-East and South-West monsoons. Of the two, the south-west monsoon which cycle from mid-November till March serves as a drier period for Malaysia, particularly for the west coast of the Peninsula as it is sheltered by the land mass of Sumatra. During the North-East monsoon, from May to September, the sky turns grey, the landscape is drenched and the rivers become swollen.

A dense bamboo thicket in the Malaysian heartland.

The transitional period between the two monsoons is marked by heavy rainfall, accompanied by lightning and thunderstorms.

Malaysia's share of annual rainfall of about 260 centimetres is above the global average. Sarawak records the most rainfall in the country, receiving between 350 to 500 centimetres annually. Basically, there are three main types of rainfall: convectional, orographic and cyclonic, the first being the most prominent.

Daytime temperatures in the lowlands average 32 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit) with high humidity levels of 80 per cent on most days. However, for every 100 metres increase in altitude, the temperature drops by about 0.6 degrees Celsius. The only place where freezing point is experienced is at the peak of Sabah's Mount Kinabalu, the highest mountain in Southeast Asia.

c. Topography

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This landmark on Tioman islands was known to ancient mariners plying the South China Sea trade routes a millenium ago.

Visitors to the Malaysian heartland cannot help but feel overwhelmed by the beauty of its natural landscape and the spectacular topographical formations. From the scenic coastline to the mangrove swamps and deeper inland into the sprawling rainforests right up its rugged mountains, the terrain changes systematically offering richness in resources and biological diversity.

The backbone of Peninsular Malaysia is known as Banjaran Titiwangsa or the Main Range. Running from the Malaysia-Thai border in the north to the southern state of Negeri Sembilan, this central spine effectively separates the eastern and western part of the Peninsula. The highest peak in the range is Gunung Tahan (2,187m.) situated in the central Malaysian state of Pahang. Other high peaks include Gunung Jerai in Kedah, Bukit Larut in Perak and the legendary Gunung Ledang (Mount Ophir) which straddles the Melaka-Johor border.

The southern peak of Mount Kinabalu. Mount Kinabalu with the Donkey's Ears in clear view.

In Sabah, the most prominent highlands are the Crocker Range with average heights ranging from 457 to 914 metres. Also situated in the range are the three highest mountains in Malaysia: Mount Kinabalu (4,101m), Gunung Trus Madi (2,597m) and Gunung Tambuyukon (2,579m)

In Sarawak, home to one of the world's largest natural cave systems, the two highest peaks are Gunung Murud (2,425m.) and Gunung Mulu (2,371m.)

The heavy rainfall combined with the natural configuration of the land has given birth to many rivers which barely a century ago served as the main arteries for trade and travel. Almost all the states in Malaysia have adopted the names of the principal rivers flowing through their respective territories. In the Peninsula, the longest river is Sungai Pahang (475km) followed closely by Sungai Perak (400km).

Malaysia's longest river, Sungai Rejang (563km), is in Sarawak. It is navigable by small coastal steamers as far as Kapit, 100km upstream.

d. Geology

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Dimensional stone quarry. A mountain of silicate sand.

Malaysia comprises a broad range of rock types, from the sands and silts of the coastal plains to the granite of the Main Range and limestone outcrops of the Langkawi Islands. Geologists group them into units according to their type, age and environment of deposition. Formation is the most common unit used, each with its own geographical name.

Peninsular Malaysia, which forms part of the Sunda Shield, is the spine of the Peninsula. Its Triassic fold-mountain belt continues from eastern Myanmar through Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, the Banka and Billiton Islands, and eastwards into Indonesian Borneo. The Triassic and older strata are essentially marine as opposed to the post Triassic rocks which are characteristically non-marine or continental in nature.

In Peninsular Malaysia, all the systems ranging from the Cambrian to the Quarternary, that is from 570 million years to about 10,000 years ago, are represented.

Throughout the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic eras, sedimentation was continuous; and due to the basin's instability, major breaks are apparent within and between the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic group of rocks. Almost half of Peninsular Malaysia, notably in the Main Range, is occupied by granitoids. This granitic emplacement coincides with the culmination of the late Triassic orogenic event during which all the older strata were folded and deformed.

Regional metamorphism is widespread and most of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks show slight to moderate deformation but the grade has never been higher than the green schist facies which differentiate one rock from another in appearance and composition. The contact metamorphosed rocks generally form narrow aureoles around the igneous bodies. Major mineralisation occurred during the granitic emplacement and commonly associated with faulting. Faulting is common in all rocks. At least three sets of faults have been recognised on a regional scale, the youngest of which occurred during the post-Early Creataceous period.

The Macincang Formation in the northwest part of the Peninsula provides the oldest evidence of sedimentation. It consists of shallow-water, current-bedded deposits in the Langkawi Island. By the Ordovician period, the extent of the basin could have trangressed as far as Melaka. By the Silurian period, thick successions of limestone and graptolitic shales were laid down. Volcanic activities also occurred and mainly acidic tuffs were deposited in Kedah and Northern Perak. During the Devonian, sediments continued to be deposited. They occur as thick succession of limestone in Central Perak and as clastics in the northwest. East of the Main Range, in the foothills regions of western Pahang and Southwestern Kelantan, they consist of graptolitic shales, cherts, quartzites and intraformational conglomerates with minor intrusives of ophiolitic rocks. Sediments of the Upper Palaeozoic e.g. Kenny Hill, Singa and Kati formations are uncomformable over the Lower Palaeozoic sequences.

Thick formations of Lower Carboniferous limestone in central Pahang and carboniferous shales with limestone lenses in east Pahang provide the earliest indications of the formation of the basin to the east of the Main Range. Sedimentation here was typically shallow marine and, in Kelantan, was probably continuous till Early Permian. The sediments deposited consist of four main facies: argillaceous, volcanic, calcareous and arenaceous. Here, sedimentation with intermittent volcanism appears to have continued from Carboniferous through the Permian and Triassic periods. The general relationship of the Triassic with the Permian is one of conformity. However, in Kelantan, Lower Triassic beds most probably overlie the uppermost Permian conformably. Lower Triassic limestones are common, but following that, the strata became more arenaceous and argillaceous in character. The Middle and Upper Triassic periods are characterised by a flysch-type sedimentation. Widespread volcanic activity with the eruption of andesite and other intermediate to acid tuffs and lavas occurred in the axial basin. The Upper Triassic orogeny which was also accompanied by granitic intrusions saw the cessation of marine sedimentation in the Peninsula.

Excavating suitable clay for ceramics. Gold mining activities.

Post Triassic sediments are mainly continental in character and are described as molasses. These Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sediments in the Malay Peninsula overlie the older rocks with marked unconformity. The sedimentary basins occupy a zone on the eastern portion of the Peninsula from Gunung Gagau in the north to Gunung Panti in the south. The sediments consisting essentially of sandstone, conglomerate and shales with minor coal seams and volcanics, show fluvial, lalcustrine and deltaic conditions of deposition.

The Tertiary rocks are distributed onshore as isolated lalcustrine basins underlying the Quarternary deposits and offshore areas mainly as thick continental areno-argillaceous sequences. The Quarternary deposits which consist mainly of unconsolidated to semi-consolidated gravel, sand, clay and silt occupy the coastal terrains and floors of some of the inland valleys. In the Kinta and Klang Valleys, the alluvium contains valuable concentrations of tin ore.

Sabah, situated at the northern tip of Borneo, is geologically complex. The oldest rocks are the Early Triassic metamorphic rocks of the Crystalline Basement, found mainly in eastern Sabah. Large bodies of granite, granodiorite, tonalite, ultramafic and mafic rocks intrude into the metamorphic rocks. The ultramafic bodies are distinctly elongated and commonly aligned east-west along the general metamorphic foliation trend.

During the Early Cretaceous period, limestone was deposited in several localities on an emerging basement in eastern Sabah. By Late Cretaceous, thick clastic and calcareous sediments, chert, limestone and volcanic rocks were deposited over a large part of northern Sabah. Deposition continued until the Eocene epoch.

By early tertiary, an elongated northeast trending marine trough already existed, extending from the Kalimantan border into western and northern Sabah. Deposition of thick sequences of sandstone and mudstone occurred uninterrupted into the Upper Miocene epoch until it was terminated by folding and uplift, accompanied by the intrusion of the Kinabalu Batholith.

During this major Late Miocene tectonic event, slump deposits and pyroclastics accumulated in several deep basins in eastern Sabah, followed by the deposition of sandstone and mudstone with minor amounts of limestone and coal in a chain of circular to sub-circular shallow basins. Rapid uplift in the Late Miocene epoch resulted in the formation of conglomerate at Lahad Datu and cessation of deposition in the area, except in the easternmost part - the Dent Peninsula - where Pliocene sediments were deposited in coastal swamps and shallow-marine waters.

From the Late Miocene to Quarternary epochs, extensive volcanism and associated shallow intrusions along the Semporna Peninsula and a batholith-size granitic intrusion at Mount Kinabalu occurred. The post-tectonic volcanic rocks that erupted in the Semporna Peninsula are typical of the calc-alkaline Pacific island arc type, being rich in soda-lime feldspar and generally low in potash. The early eruptions are mainly andesite, dacite and basalt. Several volcanic cones are still recognisable, and hot springs - remnants of volcanism - occur at several places in the Semporna Peninsula.

Washing down the soil containing bauxite. An aggregate granite quarry.

Quarternary deposits, consisting of coarse gravel, sand, silt, clay, peat and coral accumulated along the coast and are now found in raised terraces and in inland plains in Tenom, Klias, Padas valley, and the Sook-Keningau plains.

Most metallic mineral deposits and occurrences in Sabah occur along a central belt stretching from the northern islands of Banggi and Malawali, through Taritipan, Mount Kinabalu and the Labuk valley to the upper Segama valley - Darvel Bay area and Semporna Peninsula.

In Sarawak, the oldest formations date back to 300 million years. These ancient rocks form part of the West Borneo Basement which is the exposed part of Sundaland in Southwest Borneo, and is thus related to continental South-East Asia. The Basement is built up of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks. Most of Sarawak is underlain by younger Tertiary sedimentary rocks especially the region northeast of the Lupar river.

Among the more prominent geomorphorlogical landforms are the many caves developed in limestone formations including the famed Niah Caves and Mulu Caves; and the high waterfalls developed over Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the Usun Apau Plateau and Hose Mountains in the interior of the state.

The Mulu Caves, developed in the Melinau Limestone during the Tertiary period, stand out as one of the most spectacular cave systems of the world.

Source:Credit: Information Malaysia 1998; and The Encyclopedia of Malaysia - The Environment

e. Flora

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The world's largest flower, the Rafflesia , grows in the forests of Mount Kinabalu Park.

Home to the oldest rainforests on the planet, some 130 million years of age, Malaysia is a genetic treasure trove of over 14,500 species of flowering plants and trees. About 75 per cent of the land is covered by natural vegetation which changes with elevation both in species and height, with the tallest trees towering 45 metres above the forest canopy.

Its tropical rainforests exhibit species richness not only at the community level but also at the family and genus levels. In Peninsular Malaysia, the flowering plant flora exceeds 8,500 species, while in Sabah and Sarawak there are more than 12,000 species. One of the most celebrated is the Rafflesia, the world's largest flower measuring up to one metre across.

Lowland forests:

The lowland forests constitute freshwater and mangrove swamps which are regularly inundated with fresh water with high pH content and rich in minerals. The fluctuation of the water level allows periodic drying of the soil surface. In Peninsular Malaysia, most of these freshwater swamp forests, are found in Pahang and the southeastern part of Johor. There, in the sheltered coastal areas, stilt-rooted mangrove trees, which have adapted to tidal influence and saline waters, form an even, continuous canopy.

Water lilies is one of the many species of Malaysian flowers.

Further inland is found the nipa swamp forest. Uninfluenced by tidal movement, it is a unique brackish-water plant community dominated by nipa palm (Nypa fruiticans). On the landward fringes of the nipa swamp are clumps of nibong palms (Oncosperma filamentosum).The leaves of the nipa palm make good thatching material and the leaflets have been used for smoking tobacco long before the advent of cigarette paper. Its sap can be processed to obtain sugar and alcohol.

At one time, lowland peatswamp forests were a common feature on the coasts of Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak. Their forest structure is identical to freshwater forests, in that there is also the canopy, the understorey and the shrub layers.

The highland peat forest, or kerangas, are mostly found in the Kelabit Highlands of Sarawak. Here, the upper tree canopy is consistently 30 metres above the ground. However, much of this forest, especially in Johor state, has been converted into plantation land mostly for growing oil palm and pineapple.

Along Malaysia's lengthy coast, where soils are sandy and there is no mangrove, beach vegetation prevails. Stretching up to one kilometre inland, this thick, mat-like vegetation, including casuarina, cashewnut and simpoh trees, helps in controlling soil erosion. A typical beach forest is seen in Pulau Rumbia, Perak, where it merges well with coconut plantations.

The lowland dipterocarp forest, which is the most extensive type is found below the 300-metre line. The most important commercial timber species are found at this altitude where there is a considerable variation of dipterocarp species. There are also a variety of fruit trees with about 9 per cent of the tree flora, especially in Peninsular Malaysia, bearing edible fruits.

Hill Forests:

Long Malaysian Orchids. Jungle Orchids.

Hill forests on the craggy limestone hills and outcrops are striking landscape in many parts of Malaysia, and are rich in plant species. In Peninsular Malaysia, 1,216 species have been found on just 0.3 per cent of the land surface occupied by limestone hills.

In most cases similar to the lowland dipterocarp, hill dipterocarp is distinguished by seraya (Shorea curtisii) trees. Lower dipterocarp forests are found at an altitude of 300-750 metres, while upper dipterocarp forests grow at 1200 metres. Together, the Malaysian lowland and hill dipterocarp forests rank among the world's most species-rich terrestrial ecosystems. The tropical tree families found here include the Bombacaceae, Clusiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Myristicaceae and Myrtaceae.

Montane forests:

Walking up the dipterocarp forest from the lowlands up into the hill ranges, at a certain point one notices a fairly sharp change in the vegetation marking the boundary into montane forest. The exact altitude varies from place to place: from as low as 600 metres on the smaller isolated mountains to above 1,200 metres on the massive mountain ranges of western Sabah. At these points, very large trees and large lianas cease to exist, and there are very few or no dipterocarps and legumes. Climbers ascending Mount Kinabalu will encounter sub-alpine and alpine vegetation.

The lower montane forest, or the oak-laurel forest, is distinguished by the predominance of trees belonging to the oak (Fagaceae) and laurel (Lauraceae) species. Also common at this altitude are tree ferns conifers and members of the tea, magnolia, oil-fruit and root-parasite balaphora families.

Flame of the forest.

The upper montane forest begins at altitudes of 1,700 metres and above. Here, one finds Rhododendron and Vaccinium of the Ericaceae family. Their branches are gnarled and covered with mosses, liverworts, lichens and other epiphytes. Due to the enveloping blanket of cloud and mist, the forest appears perpetually damp.

Exclusive to Mount Kinabalu, Malaysian subalphine vegetation comprises a windswept, shrubby forest intermixed with open, grassy, waterlogged vegetation.

Further up the mountain, at 3350 metres, one encounters alphine vegetation where the forest suddenly becomes quiet with the cessation of the sounds of birds and insects. With the mist, visibility drops to less than 10 metres.

Secondary forests:

Secondary forests take over the terrain where natural forests have been logged or cleared during shifting cultivation. It is different from its predecessor in terms of structure, productivity and composition. Pioneer species in secondary forests are Macaranga and Mallotus, which over time mature into an original forest albeit with a new composition.

Antherium flowers. Wild Ginger plant.

The tropical rainforest of Malaysia is a hub of biodiversity. As much as the tall trees fight for sunshine at the top of the forest canopy, there are a variety of other plants that flourish on the jungle floor. These include climbers, epiphytes, herbs, parasites, saprophytes, shrubs and stranglers.

The fungi, classified into five major groups, namely the Oomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota and Deuteromycota, are a diverse group of saprobic, symbiotic or parasitic organisms. Nature has accorded them the task of decomposing organic matter and recycling nutrients to ensure the continued existence of the Malaysian forests.

Algae are found in Malaysia's rivers, ponds, lakes, mangroves and seas. There are about 600 genera with 2,000 species of algae in the country.

Lichens, which are organisms comprising fungi and blue-green algae in a symbiotic relationship, are found on tree trunks, branches and leaves in damp habitats at all altitudes.

Bryophytes are divided into three classes: liverworts, hornworts and mosses. These small green plants measuring less than 2 centimetres long are found in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. There are altogether about 1,800 species with more than one thousand found on Mount Kinabalu.

About 5.4 per cent of the world's fern population are found in Malaysia, numbering more than 650 species. Five hundred of these are found mainly in the lowland and montane forests of Peninsular Malaysia. About half of the ferns and fern allies in Malaysia are epiphytes, that is plants which grow on other plants for support. The three most common epiphytic ferns found here are the oak leaf, stag's horn and bird's nest ferns.

Cycads are said to be an ancient group of plants and were the principal components of terrestrial vegetation at around the time when dinosaurs ruled the Earth. In Malaysia today, there are four species, three native and one introduced from South China and Japan in the nineteenth century.

Cycas rumphii or paku laut as they are known locally grow on the sandy shores and in the beach forests along the coast of Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. They have thick cylindrical stems, and can grow up to a height of 7 metres. The older trees have huge pinnate leaves measuring 1m to 2m, with as many as 50 pairs of leaflets on both sides of the main leaf stem or rachis. Cycas macrocarpa, or paku gajah, is found in the lowland dipterocarp forests of Perak, Kelantan and Pahang; while Cycas pectinata, is a native of the limestone hills in Langkawi and Perlis. The imported Cycas revoluta has of late become popular with gardening enthusiasts.

Gnetum, the most well-known of which are the belinjau or melinjau, is a tropical genus consisting mostly of woody climbers as well as a few trees and shrubs. The 15 species found in Malaysia flourish at altitudes below 1,800 metres.

Palms are a common sight in Malaysia. In the Peninsula alone, there are about 210 species of palms, while in Sabah and Sarawak there about 300. Of these, 96 are endemic to Peninsular Malaysia, 14 to Sabah and 70 to Sarawak.

Some bamboos, a distinct sub-family of grasses, are native to Malaysia while others were introduced from neighbouring regions. In Malaysia, the 80 or so species are used both as raw material and ornamental purposes.

The herbs in Malaysia are well represented in both dicotyledon and monocotyledon families. They range in size from minute grasses to lofty banana plants a few metres tall.

Most Malaysian orchids, the ornaments of the trees in the Malaysian rainforest, are epiphytic plant forms. Some are terrestrial and a very small number are saprophytic. There are some 850 species covering 120 genera in Peninsular Malaysia, and another 2,500 species in Sabah and Sarawak. On Mount Kinabalu alone, there are 1,200 species. The tiger orchid, which is the largest in Malaysia, grows in a sturdy cluster; while the smallest is the inconspicuous plant of the Corybas species, only a few centimetres high.

There are more than 160 species of ginger (Zingiberaceae) in Peninsular Malaysia and about 155 species in Sabah and Sarawak. They are mostly abundant in the lowland forests between altitudes 200 to 500 metres.

Climbers abound in the Malaysian tropical rainforest, with about 1,000 species that constitute 8 per cent of the flowering plant flora. They come in an various shapes and sizes, ranging from the delicate, thin-stemmed herbaceous creepers to the sturdy, woody perennial climbers.

The insectivorous flowering plants in Malaysia fall under three families - the bladderwort, sundew and the pitcher plant families. Altogether, there are about 47 species. The largest of the pitcher plants, Nepenthes raja, which can hold over two litres of water is unique to Sabah only.

Aquatic flowering plants are found in most freshwater bodies such as ponds, ditches, lakes, dams, rivers, irrigation canals and wet paddy fields. There are about 216 species in 30 families including monocotyledonous plants such as duckweed, jerangau, keladi bunting and sedges as well as dicotyledonous plants like kangkong, lotus and water lilies.

Man-made vegetation:

Flower Nursery.

In its march to progess, Malaysia has utilised a sizeable amount of land for agricultural, mining and industrial purposes as well as for urban development. These activities have resulted in the creation of various types of man-made vegetation including paddy fields, rubber and oil palm estates, tea plantations, vegetable patches, orchards and flower gardens.

Fruits:

Malaysia has a vast variety of exotic tropical fruits:

 

Bananas - One of the world's principal producers of bananas, Malaysia is home to over forty varieties of the succulent fruit. Carambola - Soft and juicy, starfruits vary in taste from sour to sweet. Cempedak - Averaging between 20 -50 cm in size, the cempedak is eaten raw or deep-fried together with the seed. The cempedak tree can grow up to 20 metres high and bears fruit five years after germination. Guava - Apart from being eaten fresh, the guava fruit, in particular the newer seedless variety, can also be processed into juice, jam, nectar and canned fruit slices in syrup. It has been determined that guava juice contains two to five times the amount of Vitamin C found in fresh orange juice. Ciku - A delicious dessert with soft and pulpy flesh. The fruit is granulated and yellowish to pinkish brown in colour. When bud-grafted or marcotted, the trees start to bear fruit three to four years after planting. Ciku.

Langsat and duku - Belonging to the same species, their usually white flesh varies in taste from sweet to sour. Mandarin orange - There are several varieties, varying in diameter size from 7.5 - 12.5 cm and flattened at both ends. Its orange or yellow shiny soft skin can be easily peeled off. Mango - A popular dessert. When fully ripe, it can be processed into mango juice and concentrate, jams, jellies, preserves and ice-cream. Mangosteen - Upon ripening, the flesh turns a deep crimson. It measures about seven cm across and has a firm smooth rind. Durian-The aromatic ‘king of Malaysian fruits' - Popular, fascinating, lucrative and controversial. Manggosteen Durian: King of Malaysian fruits

Jackfruit. Nangka: Also known as jackfruit, the nangka is available throughout the year peaking around June and December. Probably the largest cultivated fruit, it measures 30-39 cm by 25-50 cm. The tree normally starts to bear fruit when it is about three years old. Nutmeg: Found mainly in Penang, the nutmeg is more well-known as a spice and as a dried, pickled fruit.   Papaya. Papaya: Popular, non-seasonal, inexpensive with high nutritional content of Vitamins A and C. Generally, it starts to flower five months after planting with the first fruits ready for harvest after another five months. Passion fruit: Passion fruit juice can be blended with a wide range of beverages. The vines start to yield about 12 months after planting, reaching maximum production after 24 months.

Pineapple. Pineapple: Malaysia grows three varieties of pineapple - the Sarawak and Mauritius for the fresh fruit market, and the Singapore-Spanish for canning. Pomelo: Weighing in between 0.5 to 1.4 kg, the pomelo or shaddock is the biggest in the citrus family, and fruits all year round. Rambutan: Indigenous to Malaysia, it fruits twice a year mainly in June and September. It is largely consumed fresh although the production of canned rambutans in syrup is on the rise. Rambutans. Water melon: A popular thirst quencher available all year round. The fruit can be harvested about 100 days after sowing. The seeds, dried and eaten separately, are known as kuaci.

f. Fauna

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Malaysia's equatorial climate is conducive for the proliferation of a variety of animal species, many of them endemic to this country. It is documented that there are more than one thousand species of butterflies, 600 species of birds, 280 species of mammals, 140 species of snakes, 165 species of frogs and toads, 80 species of lizards and a myriad of insect species. These animals are found in many different environments including mangrove swamps, rivers and mountainsides, primary and secondary forests as well as former mining land.

Animals:

Elephants

The Asiatic Elephant Elephas maximus, the largest mammal in the region.

The largest of Malaysia's land animals is the elephant, of which both the Asian and the African species are found. The adult bull elephant is about 2.5 metres tall while the female animal can reach 2.2 metres. In Peninsular Malaysia, the wild elephants, numbering about 1,000 animals, live in small, scattered herds mostly in protected areas such as the National Park, the Krau Wildlife Reserve and the Endau-Rompin Park. Approximately another 1,000 elephants found in Sabah are confined to a very small area.

Tapirs

The nocturnal Malayan tapir is a strange smooth black and white mammal, smaller than a hairy rhino but larger than a wild pig. It has a long flexible trunk-like snout. Its unusual colouring provides excellent camouflage in the dappled forest environment. Local folk tales claim that tapirs can walk completely submerged along a riverbed, feasting on aquatic grasses.

Rhinoceros

The hairy Sumatran two-horned rhinoceros (badak sumbu) is a solitary animal, but at times can be found in pairs or groups of threes. Of the five surviving rhinoceros species, it is the smallest and the most primitive. Confined almost entirely to mountainous areas, they are considered the most endangered species in Malaysia with only about 50 animals in Peninsular Malaysia, 20 in Sabah and perhaps one in Sarawak. In their natural habitat, they are often detected by their footprints - three large toenails on each foot, one in front and one on each side with a maximum 18-24 cm width between the side nails. Another sign of their presence is where they have dug mud wallows into the soil to enjoy a cool mudbath on hot days.

Cats

Malaysia's national animal, the Malayan tiger, is the largest of the big cats. Known as the king of the jungle, it is found mostly in the major primary and secondary rainforests in the north-eastern states of Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang including the National Park.

There are also significant tiger populations in Perak and Johor. The average adult male tiger measures about 2.62 metres from head to tail while a tigress can reach up to 2.38 metres. These nocturnal creatures can weigh up to 150 kilograms.

Apart from the tiger, the Malaysian felidae family has seven other members: the panther, the clouded leopard, the golden cat, the leopard cat, the marbled cat and the flat-headed cat. The panther and the golden cat are found only in Peninsular Malaysia, while the bay cat is found only in Sabah and Sarawak. The remaining four are common to both areas.

Wild Cattle

The seladang of Peninsular Malaysia and the banteng or tembadau of Sabah and Sarawak are the second largest land animals in Malaysia. The bulls of both species of these wild cattle are larger and more powerfully built than domesticated cows. Compared to the seladang, the banteng is less massive and is distinguishable by its white rump. The adult bull is black while the younger males and female animals are pale reddish-brown in colour.

Monkeys and Apes

The Orang Utan (Pongo pygmaeu) is a protected species in Malaysia.

Malaysia has seven species of primates, all diurnal and generally noisy and conspicuous. These monkeys and apes feed mainly on the seeds and leaves of forest trees, lianas and legumes. The adult Silvered Leaf monkey is the colour of steel wool while the babies are a brilliant orange. The Dusky Leaf or the Banded Leaf monkey can be seen around Kuala Lumpur and Petaling Jaya. Both species are abundant in many areas, but are particularly conspicuous in the Kerau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang.

In Sarawak, one encounters a close relative of the Banded Leaf monkey. Those found in the Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary are almost entirely black, while those in northern Sarawak are a mixture of reddish-brown, black and white. The Red Leaf monkey of Sabah is often confused with the orangutan due to the similarity in colouring. However, the main distinguishing factor is that monkeys have tails while the orangutans do not.

The handsome grey-and-white Grey Leaf monkey which prevails in Sarawak and the Tabin Wildlife Reserve in Sabah is more often than not detected by the mystifying bizarre gurgling call of the adult male animal. In the Danum Valley and Tawau Hills Park of southeastern Sabah, the forest traveller finds the Creamy-white Leaf monkey, and in the Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary and the interior of Sarawak the White-fronted Leaf monkey, which is the least known among the species.

The Proboscis monkey, closely related to the Leaf monkeys, is a unique creature found only on the island of Borneo. The adult male weighs over 20 kilogrammes and has a large, pendulus nose, while the adult female is half the size and has a small snub nose.

The Pig-tailed and the Long-tailed Macaque monkeys are much less attractive and are regarded as serious pests in plantations and rural gardens. The former inhabit hill forests while the latter, much more adaptable, are commonly seen on the fringes of towns, villages, cultivated areas and forests. In Kelantan and Terengganu, captive young male Pig-tailed Macaques are trained to pick coconuts. The Long-tailed Macaque is also known as the Crab-eating Macaque as those inhabiting coastal areas feed mostly on crabs and marine organisms.

The small agile gibbons are widespread throughout Malaysia. The high-pitched songs of the female gibbon is one of the most familiar sound in the Malaysian dipterocarp forests. They live in monogamous family units - father, mother and offspring - with the parent animals generally pairing for life. The totally black Siamang is found only in the hill ranges of central Peninsular Malaysia. Many who have seen the creature in its natural habitat claim that it is one of the most memorable sights and sounds of the forest.

Orangutan, literally ‘forest person' in Malay, is considered the most intelligent land mammal after human beings, but is the least social of the primate family. They are normally very quiet and difficult to spot in the wild. Once thought to inhabit the tall, extensive dipterocarp forests, recent studies have shown that they occur most abundantly in swamps and coastal forests and along riverbanks.

Deer

Of the five species of deer found in Malaysia, three belong to the Cervidae family; and two are mouse deer or chevrotains of the Tragulidae family. The Cervidae family comprises the sambar deer, the Indian muntjak or barking deer and the Bornean yellow muntjak. The two mousedeer species are the lesser mouse deer and the greater mouse deer.

The sambar deer, which is the largest, lives on the fringes of the forest and riverbanks, feeding on herbs and grasses. The antlers on the head of a fully matured stag bears three points. There are two species of Barking deer, one of which is endemic to Borneo. The males have short antlers while the females have none. Both species prefer to stay in the forests where they feed on fallen fruit and leaf shoots. The Barking deer derives its name from the loud, hoarse barks which can cause considerable alarm to the unwary jungle traveller.

Both species of the mousedeer, whether male or female do not have antlers. Locally, the Greater mousedeer is known as napu, while the Lesser mousedeer, less then 30 cms high, is known as pelandok or kancil. This tiny animal is depicted as being very intelligent in traditional Malay stories.

Sun Bears

The Malayan bear relaxing on a branch.

The Malayan sun bear, or honey bear, is the smallest of the world's seven species of bears, and the only one found in Southeast Asia. This carnivorous animal belongs to the Ursidae family. The name Sun Bear is probably linked to its habit of basking in the sun on tree boles or on the ground. It is also known as the Honey bear because of its fondness for honeycombs. When fully grown, the Sun Bear is about 1.1 to 1.4 metres tall and weighs between 27 to 65 kilogrammes. The body is covered with short black hair, with a white or pale buff V-shaped mark on the upper chest. Cubs have a whitish muzzle which becomes less prominent upon maturity. The bear has a large head set with small eyes and small, rounded ears. Active both during the day and at night, the sun bear is a good climber.

Otters

There are four species of otters in Malaysia. Of these, the most common is the smooth otter and the small-clawed otter which are distributed all over the country mainly in the lowlands. The common otter, which is the largest, has a comparatively rougher coat, while the nose of the hairy otter is completely covered by hair. Otters have a close coat of water proof fur; thick, muscular and slightly flattened tails; and large webbed feet - all characteristically associated with their aquatic behaviour. All highly territorial and gregarious, they are protected under the law.

• Civets
  Civets, which are nocturnal cat-like animals, are mostly restricted to forest habitats throughout Malaysia. There are twelve species in the country, all possessing the distinguishing pointed muzzle. All, except the linsang, are equipped with scent glands. The binturong's long black hair and the total lack of stripes or spots sets it apart from the other civets. Being a noisy animal, it is thought that the binturong uses the scent glands for communication purposes.
• Mongoose
  There are seven species of mongooses in Malaysia, the most common being the short-tailed mongoose. They are small, slender-bodied mammals measuring about 25-60 centimetres from head to tail. Generally, their colours range from grey to reddish brown, except for the crab-eating and collared mongooses which are distinguished by their white and yellowish facial markings. Despite their small size, mongooses are known to be bold and ferocious often subduing larger animals including snakes. They are mostly found in the forests except the short-tailed mongoose which sometimes wanders into inhabited areas.
• Pigs
  The Malaysian wild pig (babi hutan) is related to the common wild pig found in Europe, northern Africa and Asia. It has a shoulder height of 65-75 centimetres and weighs between 75-200 kilogrammes. It lives in the forest and also on the fringes of cultivated land. The bearded pig (babi jokut), which is restricted to Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra, is larger than the wild pig with a shoulder height of about 90 centimetres and weighs 57-120 kilogrammes. It takes its name from the fringe of long, bristly hairs on the jaws. Abundant in Sabah and Sarawak, it serves as a source of meat for hill-dwellers.
• Bats
  The largest group of mammals in Malaysia are the bats (kelawar), comprising some 40 per cent of the 280 species of mammals in the country. Their numbers include the fruit bat family (Megachiroptera) which feeds on fruits, flowers or nectar; and the insectivorous bats (Microchiroptera). The latter, in addition to their sight faculty, utilise echolocation to navigate and find their prey. They do this by sending out high-pitched sounds through the mouth or nose, and from the pattern of the reverberating echoes are able to configure an image of the immediate environment.
• Among the fruit bats, the most common are the cave bats found in Batu Caves, Selangor, and the dog-faced fruit bats. There are also the dusky fruit bats and the spotted-wing bats. Of the insectivorous bats, the most common species are the house bats which roost under the roofs of houses and on garden palms. However, most species are forest dwellers including the whiskered bat, greater and lesser flat-headed bats and the trefoil horseshoe bat.
• Squirrels and Flying Lemurs
  In Malaysia, there are 26 species of diurnal tree and ground squirrels. In addition, it is home to 15 species of nocturnal flying squirrels, which are distinguished by their gliding membrane or patagium that enables them to glide from tree to tree. Squirrels belong to the Sciuridae family. Further, the tree and ground squirrels belong to the Sciurinae sub family, while the flying squirrel to the Petauristinae. Of the 26 species of diurnal squirrels, 20 are found in Sabah and Sarawak, and 14 in Peninsular Malaysia. They differ greatly in size, ranging from the tiny 20 grammes pigmy squirrel of Borneo to the black giant squirrel of Peninsular Malaysia. Some are found in the lowland forests, while others are confined to the hills and mountains.
• The flying lemur or colugo, neither a lemur nor capable of true flight, is one of two members of the order Dermoptera. Gliding from tree to tree, it is often mistaken for the flying squirrel. The male animal is brighter in colour, usually a shade of brown, while the females are greyish. Both have scattered white spots on the back. It is a largely nocturnal animal that has been observed to be active in the early morning.
• Shrews, Rats and Mice
  The nine species of shrews found in Malaysia belong to the order Insectivora. They are divided into three families: Erinaceidae with two gymnure species, Talpidae with Malaysia's sole mole species and Soricidae which has 6 species of ground shrews. Of these, the most familiar and the largest is the house shrew. Measuring only 3-5 centimetres, the Malaysian pygmy shrew is the smallest in the world. It is found in Peninsular Malaysia and also in Sabah and Sarawak. Other species include the common forest and Sunda shrews. Also found in Malaysia is the tree shrew which looks like a squirrel. There are 10 species in Sabah and Sarawak and three in Peninsular Malaysia.
• Rats and mice belong to the order Rodentia, family Muridae. Most of the Malaysian species are forest dwellers, and only a few depend on man for their survival.
• Pangolin and porcupines
  Malaysia has one specie of pangolin and four of porcupines. The pangolin is found in plantations and also in primary and secondary forests. Its most distinctive feature is the armour of protective scales covering its whole body except the hairy underside. Porcupines have spines that normally lie flat on their backs, but which can be raised to point in all directions. Both are nocturnal creatures.
• Serows
  The serow, a relative of the goat, is often found on limestone hills. Both the male and female animals have a pair of almost straight horns 20-30 centimetres long, which are invisible from a distance.
• Slow Loris and Tarsiers
  The Slow Loris is a tubby, soft-furred creature with a very short tail. In Sabah, it has adapted well to life in cocoa plantations, enjoying the cocoa fruits. The tarsier, which is found in Sabah and Sarawak, but not in the Peninsular Malaysia, is a strange mammal. It measures about 13 centimetres long minus its 20-centimetre pencil-like tail. It has soft fur, enormous round eyes, and frog-like hands and feet, which bear nails on some fingers and toes and claws on others. Its head can be rotated through 180 degrees to face very nearly back to front. Unlike most nocturnal animals, the Tarsier's eyes do not reflect light.
• Birds
  

The Malaysian rainforest is home to 624 species of birds belonging to 78 families, many of which are endowed with extraordinarily beautiful plumage. Of these, only 426 are resident species while the others are migrant birds escaping the harsh winter in the northern hemisphere.

The hornbill, of which there are 10 species, is often associated with Sarawak albeit there are more species of the bird found in Peninsular Malaysia. Swiftlets, the builders of the world famous edible birds' nests, are also closely associated with Sabah and Sarawak although they are also found in Peninsular Malaysia. In the former two states, the collection of birds' nest is conducted as a commercially viable business activity.

By far, the largest order of birds are the songbirds which are of cultural importance. Traditionally, the Malays rear two species of dove - the zebra or peaceful dove (merbuk) and the spotted-necked dove (tekukur), as cage birds because of their sweet melodious crooning. Of late, songbird contests have become increasingly popular involving these two species of doves as well as the white-rumped shama (murai batu) and the red-whiskered bulbul (merbah telinga merah). Another popular cage bird is the myna. They are good mimickers, especially the hill myna (tiong mas) and the common myna (tiong gembala kerbau), which can even mimic human speech.

The birds of prey are distinctly divided into diurnal and nocturnal birds. The magnificent eagles and hawks of the order Falconiformes are active during the day, while the owls of the order Strigiformes and frogmouths and nightjars of the order Caprimulgiformes sleep by day and hunt by night.

Deep in the rainforest, the pheasants with the ‘many eyes on their wings' clear and jealously guard the dancing grounds used for performances to attract a female. Unfortunately, the Javanese green peafowl (merak) species has been hunted to extinction.

Waterbirds are found along the coast and also near inland bodies of water, whether natural or man-made. They comprise a wide variety of species, both resident and migrant. Among them are the herons, storks, egrets and waterhens as well as ducks and geese. The milky stork, a very rare species, has been successfully bred in captivity at the Malaysian National Zoo.

 

 

Reptiles and Amphibians:

Wagler's Pit Viper (Trimeresurus waglerii). Rana Hosei, a rainforest amphibian.

The reptiles and amphibians of Malaysia comprise members of the crocodile, turtle, snake, lizard and frog families. They range in size from the minute frogs to crocodiles measuring several metres long. Very much unchanged since prehistoric times, the estuarine crocodile is carnivorous and sometimes attacks humans. On the other hand, the gharial which lives on fish is considered harmless.

The majority of the 140 or so species of land snakes found in Malaysia are harmless. Of the 17 poisonous snake species, the king cobra (ular tedung selar) is the largest and most venomous snake in the world. Its bite can quickly prove fatal. The world's second longest snake, the reticulated python (ular sawa) kills by constricting prey as large as a cow or goat before swallowing it whole.

There is a wide range of lizard species in Malaysia, from the small insect-eating geckos found on the walls and ceilings of houses to the largest of the four monitor lizards species, the water lizard which is killed for its skin.

There are 18 species of non-marine turtles, tortoises and terrapins in Malaysia, some of which are wholly terrestrial, some wholly aquatic, and yet others amphibious. Some species are kept at temples as a symbol of longevity, while others are eaten as a nourishing food. The great leatherback turtles of Terengganu emerge from the South China Sea at the dead of night to lay their eggs in the sand.

Of the 165 species of frogs and toads found in Malaysia, some live in deep jungle while others inhabit cultivated areas including paddy fields.

Insects and other Invertebrates:

Malaysia is home to more than 1,000 species of butterflies. The equatorial climate is conducive for a myriad of insect species.

There is a myriad of insect life in Malaysia, most of them legionary. The most beautiful are the butterflies, of which there are about 1,000 species. Also numerous are the moths, the largest and the most famous being the Atlas Moth. The attractive dragonflies and damselflies are always found close to the water where they lay eggs.

Malaysia has three types of bees - the stingless bee, giant honeybee and hive bee, all of which produce honey. Their relatives, the hymenopteran species of hornets and wasps are feared for their fierce stings. Some wasps species, however, act as biological control agents.

Ants and termites, which belong to groups of similar structure but different orders, are found in forests and homes. Many Malaysian ants are known for their painful bites, while termites can destroy whole fields of crops and bring down entire buildings.

In the tropical rainforest, there are fascinating stick insects with an uncanny resemblance to leaves or sticks that provides perfect camouflage from predators. Many species of bugs such as weevils destroy crops although there are some other beetles which are beneficial as they devour other insect pests. Among the most spectacular beetles are the rhinoceros beetle, the stag beetle and the long-horned beetle. One can always sense the noisy presence of grasshoppers, cicadas and crickets; and feel the irritating bite of the ubiquitous mosquitoes. Other invertebrates that are best avoided are the scorpion, the centipede and certain spiders, while the predatory leech dominates the damp jungle floor.

Fishes and other aquatic animals:

The waters in and off Malaysia abound with a great variety of marine life. The rivers - from the clear, swift-flowing upper reaches to the sluggish, slow meandering waters of the lower stretches and river mouths, teem with freshwater fish. There are over 100 species of carp, of which 70 are found in the Pahang river basin alone. Amongst the larger freshwater are the giant catfish, kelesa, toman and kului. The giant catfish (ikan tapah) can grow up to 1.8 metres long and weigh over 45 kilogrammes. It is the only dangerous freshwater fish found in Malaysia. The kelesa, toman and kului may reach up to 1 metre in length. There are also the remarkable archer fish which is known to shoot down its prey by spitting drops of water at it; and the spectacular fighting fish found in swamps and ponds.

When the tide falls back in the mangrove swamps, one can easily see the fiddler, soldier and hermit crabs, and their distinctive burrows. These are different from the river crabs of which more than 90 species have been identified. A gourmet delicacy, the large Macrobrachium freshwater prawns with their long pincers, are bred commercially on large scale aquaculture projects.

Some of the freshwater snails act as biological control agents while others such as the golden apple snails, found in paddy fields, are considered pests.